Environmental Science: Section 3

When did the human population reach its first 1 and 2 billion and 3 and 6 billion people?

1804 and 1927 and 1959 and 1998

From 1974 to 2022, we get a billion every _______ years?

12

It is estimate we will take how many years to reach 9 billion?

14

When will the human population peak and at how much?

In 2100 at 10 billion people

Growth rates in 1963 and now

2.1% in 1963 (76 million people), and now 0.83-0.9% (70 million people)

Immigration has accounted for up to _______ of US's population increase?

1/3 in some years

What is the crude birth and crude death rate?

It is the number of births or deaths per thousand people

How to calculate growth rate using CBR and CDR?

CBR-CDR/10

What is the most effective way to see changes in growth rates over time?

By plotting hte birth rates and the death rates

Are China and India industrialized?

the resourrce guides doesn't consider them to be industrialiszecd

How many people live in high income and low income countries?

1.3 billion and 6.7 billion

What are the growth rates of lower income and higher income countries?

1.5% and 0.2%

What lower-income region is paticularly growing rapidly?

The region of sub-Saharan Africa

Equation for environmental impact

Environmental impact = Population x Resource used per person x Impact of resource used

How much oil did we use in 1960,1999 and 2022?

3000 million tons

7900 million tons

11500 million tons

What about oil causes land and water degradation?

Its extraction

What is the total fertility rate in the US? What is the replacement fertili8ty rate?

1.84% and 2.1%

How many people per year immigrate to the US?

A million people

What is infant mortality?

Death of childernr under 1 year of age per 1000 live births

Life expectancy is shorter for

men than women

The gap between life expectancy for men and women is decreasing why?

Because more and more women are entering the workforce

US's CDR and Mexico's CDR

9 and 5

What is overall a good indicator of healthcare?

Life expectancy and infant mortality combined together

How many countries are better than US in infant mortality rates? What counties?

Over a dozen

Canada, Japan, Sweden, Fance, Finland, Iceland, Ireland.

The US spends (more or less) than the countries who have a better infant mortality rate than them?

More GDP per capita on healthcare

Why is the US's infant mortality rate bad?

Because other countries have universal health care and more generous time off during later stages of pregnancy.

Also because of disparities of health care provided to Minorities and the pollutants that they had to face

What is the US's infant mortality rate? What is it for blacks and native Americans?

It is 5.4, but 10.4 for Blacks and 8.2 for Natives

What is $<15/%>65?

Percent less than 15 years of age and percent more than 65 years of age

What is US and Mexico' and Nigerias 15/65

18/18 and 24/8 and 41/3.3

What is an age-structure diagram commonly called?

A population pyramid

What interval does an age-structure diagram often use?

5 years

What countries exhibit an age-structure diagram that indicates rapid population growth?

1. Uganda

2. Ghana

3. Nigeria

4. Haiti

(Countries with growth rates of 2-3.5)

What countries display a age-structure diagram that indicates negative growth?

Japan, Italy, Germany

How old is the earth?

4.6 billion years

Within how many years did the Earth heat up enough to melt rock?

500 million years ago

The earth's layers are differentiated by

density

How much of the volume of Earth does the mantle make up?

80%

The whole Earth is _____ iron, but only _____ of the lithosphere is iron

35%, 6%

What are hte primary sources of elements for hte biosphere

The lithosphere and the atmosphere

How thick is the lithosphere?

100 km

What are the 3 most abundant gases in the atmosphere?

Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen(21%), Argon (0.9%)

Carbon dioxide is a trace element because

It is only 0.036% of the atmosphere

What is an intermediate source of elements for plants?

Soil

What cycle is instrumental for the movement of elements/

Hydrologic cycle

Where do Calcium and Magnesium and Potassium derived primarily from?

1. Rocks (limestone, dolomitic limestone, marble)

2. Decomposed vegetation

3. Terrestrial dust (not potassium)

When were the dust bowls?

1920s and 1930s

What caused the dustbowl?

Heat, drought, wind, bad agricultural practices that caused the removal of the natural topsoil

How is sulfur similar to nitrogen cycle?

Has an atmospheric form (SO2, sulfur dioxide) as well as plants taking it up as sulfate anion (SO42-) It also leaches

What elements don't leach and why?

Calcium and magnesium because they combine with organic compounds

Is potassium susceptible to leaching?

Yes, more so than phosphorous

What is a natural atmospheric source of sulfur

Volcanic emissions

Since when did the US sulfur deposition decrease?

1995

What is a difference between sulfur and nitrogen?

Sulfur can also be found in rocks and minerals.

What form do plants usually take up elements?

Ionic form (aqueous)

What 4 functions do soils serve?

1. They are a medium for plant growth

2. Primary filter of water as it moves through the cycle

3. Habitat for organisms that act as organic matter recyclers that benefit plants

4. They filter chemical elements deposited from air pollution and sewage from household waste, retaining some and releasing some to the atmosphere or groundwater.

Soils can sometimes differ within only a few

meter

how many horizons does a typical soil have?

3 or more

What is a horizon?

Layers of soil defined by their physical, chemical and biological properties

Horizons of soil

1. O horizon (only in forests, humus, leaf material, needles, etc.)

2. A horizon (humus and minerals)

2a. E horizon (leached, light in color, acidic soils)

3. B horizon: accumulation of E,O,A and clay, iron and aluminum (end of microorganisms and plant roots)

4. C horizon: weathered parent material.

Usually, where is the E layer?

Under the O or A layers

What effect does the soil horizons have?

1. They determine the vegetation that grows on top of them.

2. They influence what kinds of activity goes on in the ecosystem

3. They determine how fast they retain/release pollution

How many directions does soil develop in?

2 directions, simultaneously.

Parent material is sometimes synonymous with ______

bedrock, but they can also be different.

What are the 5 state variables for soil?

1. Parent material

2. Climate

3. Topography

4. Organisms

5. Time

What parent material will lead to less nutrition and which parent material will lead to more?

Quartz sand leads to less (atlantic coast of the US), and calcium carbonate will lead to more

Which area has a rich parent material?

Area surrounding Lake Champlain in northern New York and Vermont

How does temperature affect soil?

1. Higher temperatures speed up weathering (although the more a soil freeezes and thaws, the more breakdown it will suffer)

2.. Precipitation and temperature affects leaching, with more water and higher temperatures causing more leaching.

3. Affects what types of plants grow on the soil

How does topography affect the soil?

Steep slopes are more subject to erosion and mas movement of material such as landslides

Soils on horizontal or at the bottom of slopes accumulate material.

Soils on the windward side experience more water deposition than the leeward side.

What is detritus

a combination of feces and decomposing organic matter

What organisms populate the soil ecosystem?

3 types for 80% to 90%: protozoa, bacteria/archaea and fungi

Some soil organisms are _____

herbivores that eat the root as well as the upper part of the plant.

How much more detrivores than herbivores in grassland meadows in the gorund?

10 times more in the first 15 centimeters of the soil.

What is the most important microfauna in the temperate zone?

Earthworms

What do earthworms do?

They aerate the soil, improve water drainage, mix layers and create nutritious soil through excretion.

Why do earthworm poop have a fair amount of organic matter?

Because they only partially digest what they consume.

How much can earthworms ingest

2 to 30 times their own weight each day

Earthworms are sensitive to

acidic soils: like pH neutral

How does time affect the soil?

Older soils have bigger and more differentiated layers: eg the grassland of the US have thickA and B horizons with a large supply of nutrients.

Which area has quartz sand?

Atlantic coast in the US

What horizons is topsoil?

O and A layers

Where is soil degraddation most prevalent?

Africa and Europe

How much food has soil degradation cost?

17 percent food reduction

What soils are "restored" more rapidly than what other soils?

Moderate precipitation and temperature rather than extreme.

Who is the Roman water commissioner mentioned?

Sextus Julius Frontius

What body of water was first used for the Roman's water supply?

The Tiber River but it got polluted

In Ancient Rome, streets were used as ....

It was very congested, streets were used as sewers and waste receptacles.

When was the first Roman aqueduct constructed?

312 BC

By when were how many aqueducts constructed?

By 19BC, 400 km

How long were some aqueducts?

60 km

It has been hypothesized that the Roman aristocracy declined because

of lead in water due to lead pipes. However, wine in lead bottles makes more sense

What concept did Frontinus put forward and what aqueduct did he say for garden?

The gray water, Old Anio for gardens

What is a water law passed in Rome?

no one shall with alice pollute the waters.

What did Romans do to deal with the aqueduct water conatining sendiment?

They made settlement basins and filters

How much of the Earth's surface does water cover?

75%

How much of water is fresh and how much of it is usable?

3%, 1% (because locked up in glaciers and icecaps)

Almost half of US(Not the world's) drinking water comes from

Lakes, rivers and reservoirs (surface water)

HOw much water on the surface, in the air and in organisms? Most of freshwater is where?

0.009, 0.001, 0.0001, underground

What are aquifers

a body of permeable rock that can contain or transmit groundwater.

Drilling into an aquifer is comparable to

drilling into an oil reserve

What is the saturated zone and the water table?

The saturated zone is the part of the aquifer where the water is, and the water table is the top of that.S