AP CHEM U#1

deka (da)

10¹

hecto (h)

10²

kilo (k)

10³

mega (M)

10⁶

giga (G)

10⁹

tera (T)

10¹²

peta (P)

10¹⁵

exa (E)

10¹⁸

deci (d)

10^-1

centi ( c )

10^-2

milli (m)

10^-3

micro (weird m)

10^-6

nano (n)

10^-9

pico (p)

10^-12

femto (f)

10^-15

atto (a)

10^-18

Silver

Ag⁺¹

Zinc

Zn⁺²

Mercury (I)

Hg₂⁺²

Ammonium

NH₄⁺¹

Nitrite

NO₂^-1

Nitrate

NO₃^-1

Sulfite

SO₃^-2

Sulfate

SO₄^-2

Hydrogen Sulfate (bisulfate)

HSO₄^-1

Hydroxide

OH^-1

Cyanide

CN^-1

Phosphate

PO₄^-3

Hydrogen Phosphate

HPO₄^-2

Dihydrogen Phospate

H₂PO₄^-1

Thiocyanate

NCS^-1

Carbonate

CO₃^-2

Hydrogen Carbonate (bicarbonate)

HCO₃^-1

Hypochlorite

ClO^-1

Chlorite

ClO₂^-1

Chlorate

ClO₃^-1

Perchlorate

ClO₄^-1

Hypobromite

BrO^-1

Bromite

BrO₂^-1

Bromate

BrO₃^-1

Perbromate

BrO₄^-1

Hypoiodite

IO^-1

Iodite

IO₂^-1

Iodate

IO₃^-1

Periodate

IO₄^-1

Selenate

SeO₄^-2

Acetate

C₂H₃O₂^-1

Permanganate

MnO₄^-1

Dichromate

Cr₂O₇^-2

Chromate

CrO₄^-2

Peroxide

O₂^-2

Oxalate

C₂O₄^-2

Amide

NH₂^-1

Borate

BO₃^-3

Thiosulfate

S₂O₃^-2

Matter

believed to be made of atoms

• recent development

  • you can view individual atoms using a STM

STM

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

• uses electron current from a tiny needle to probe the surface of a substance

• shows bridges (elections) that connect atoms

Macro World

What we observe in the Lab

Micro World

What is actually happening theoretically

Configuration of Atoms

manner in which atoms are organized helps determine properties of a substances

• by reorganizing the way the atoms are attached to each other, one substance can be changed to another (chemical change)

Science

process for understanding nature and its changes

• framework for gaining and organizing knowledge

• procedure for processing and understanding certain information

Scientific Method

Process that lies at the center of scientific inquiry

1. make observations

   1. Qualitative (no numbers)

   2. Quantitative (measurements)

2. Formulate hypothesis

   1. possible explanation for an observation

3. Perform experiments to test hypothesis

   1. gather new info to test validity of hypothesis

   2. produce new observations

theory

set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of natural phenomenon

• why nature behaves a certain way

• constant revisions

• changes with availability of info

Natural Law

Summary of repeatable observed (measured) behavior

Law of conservation of mass

total mass of materials is unaffected by a chemical change in those materials

Law v. Theory

Law- what happens

theory - why something happens

Measurement

Consists of a number and a scale (unit)

SI system

derived from metric system

Fundamental SI Units

• mass: Kg

• Length: m

• time: s

• temperature: K

• amount of substance: mol

• Luminous intensity : cd

Volume is derived from length 1mL=1cm³

How to measure liquids

• graduated cylinder

• pipet

• buret

• volumetric flask

mass

measure of the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion

• measured by force essential to provide an object a certain acceleration

Weight

force exerted by gravity on an object

Certain digits

numbers that remain the same regardless of who makes a measurement

• 234.1

Uncertain digits

estimated = low precision

• 234.1

meniscus

bottom of the liquid curve

significant figures

number in which certain digits and the first uncertain digit is recorded

Accuracy

agreement of a particular value with the true value

• to be accurate you must be precise

Precision

degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity

Random error/indeterminate error

measurement has an equal probability of being low or high

• occurs when estimating uncertainty

• average to remove errors

systematic error/determinate error

occurs in the same direction each time

• poor technique or faulty tool

Sig fig rules

1. nonzero integers

   1. always count as significant

2. zeros

   1. leading zeros

      1. precede all nonzero digits

      2. NOT significant

   2. captive zeros

      1. between nonzero digits

      2. ALWAYS significant

   3. trailing zeros

      1. at the end of the number

      2. ONLY significant if the number has a decimal point

         1. 9000 - 2 sig fig

         2. 90.00 - 4 sig fig

exact numbers

determined by counting

• assumed to have infinite number of sig figs

• conversion rates

Sig fig math rules

1. multiplication or division

   1. to the least precise sig figs

2. adding or subtracting

   1. to least precise measurement (decimal point)

Dimensional analysis

give x want/given = want

What is matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

• 3 states

• 3 types

States of matter

• solid

• liquid

• gas

Types of matter

• mixtures

• elements

• compounds

properties of a solid

• rigid

• fixed volume

• fixed shape

• slightly compressible

Properties of a liquid

• definite volume

• no specific shape

  • takes shape of container

• slightly compressible

Properties of a gas

• no fixed volume or shape

• takes shape and volume of container

• highly compressible

Mixtures

variable composition

• homogeneous

• heterogeneous

• can be separated into pure substances by physical methods

Homogeneous mixture

• visibly indistinguishable parts

• solution

heterogeneous mixture

• visibly distinguishable parts

Pure substances

elements and compounds

Physical change

change in state of a substance, not chemical composition

• separation of mixture into pure substances

• cannot break compounds into elements (only chemical change)

Distillation

Physical change - depends on the volatility differences of the components

• heat in distillation device

  • most volatile component vaporizes first

  • vapor passes through condenser

  • back to liquid state

Chromotography

uses a system with two states of matter

• mobile phase - liquid or gas

• stationary phase - solid

  • paper chromatography uses paper as stationary

    • separation facilitated by difference in the components affinity for the two phases

Filtration

used when a mixture comprises a solid and a liquid

crystallization

separation of dissolved solids (solute) from a solution

Compound

constant composition that can be broken down into its elements by chemical reactions