Communication & Conflict Resolution

Exam 1

Universal Communication Laws

• All living entities communicate

• A person cannot not communicate

  • Nonverbal communication is always occurring. Thus, a person cannot avoid communicating nonverbally because nonverbal cues & absence of cues will be interpreted by other people

Denotative Definitions / Denotation

• Dictionary meaning of a word

  • Consensus of a word’s meaning

Monosemic vs. Polysemic

• Monosemic

  • Singular meaning

    • Ex: scientific words, “lucrative”

• Polysemic

  • Multiple meanings

    • Ex: hit, ball, slay, fire

  • All nonverbal symbols are polysemic

Connotative Definition / Connotation

• Emotion or experience based interpretation of a word/symbol

• It is a non-literal, subjective framing of a word that adds an association or interpretation beyond the literal meaning

• Ex: 

  • Sick

    • Denotation: physically or mentally ill

    • Denotation: feeling strong unpleasant emotions

    • Connotation: excellent, awesome, etc.

Communication Competence

• The ability to create & send messages in a way that ensures the messages will be received as they were intended

• Respondents’ communication competence was positively related to friendship satisfaction. Rating a friend low in communication competency was related to lower friendship satisfaction & commitment

Intrapersonal Communication

• Communication within an individual’s mind performs many necessary functions

  • Ex: self talk

  • Helps people understand the world

  • Helps formulate ideas

  • Helps in decision-making

    • Ex: weighing pros & cons

  • Helps formulate identity

    • How we identify ourselves

  • Practicing for other levels of communication

    • Practicing what to say to another person

Interpersonal / Dyadic Communication

Communication between 2 people interacting with each other

Small Group Communication

Communication between 3 or more people interacting together

Public Communication

• A person or group delivers a message to a live audience

  • Ex: public speaking

Mass Communication (aka Mass Media Communication)

• Transmitting a message to the public through various media channels

  • Ex: radio, television, internet

Masspersonal Communication

• Bridges the dynamics of interpersonal communication, public communication, & mass communication through newer media technologies

  • Ex: “new media” such as social media

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) / Mediated Communication

• Using technology to facilitate information between 2 or more people

  • Ex: videoconferencing, phone, email, text messages, chat rooms, internet

  • Ex: looking up restaurant reviews is a computer-mediated message from the webpage/reviewer regarding the restaurant to the receiver of the information

Nonverbal Communication Clusters

• Looking at a cluster of nonverbal behaviors helps receivers from just using a single gesture to determine a sender’s thoughts, emotions, etc.

• Subgroups

  • Artifactual Communication

  • Kinesics / Body language

  • Facial expressions & eye contact

  • Spatial / Proxemics

  • Paralanguage / Paralinguistics / Vocalics

  • Tactile / Haptics

  • Olfactics

  • Congruence

Interdependence of Verbal & Nonverbal Communication

• Complementing Messages

• Substituting Message (aka ‘Speech-Independent Gestures’)

• Repeating Messages

• Accenting / Moderating Messages

• Conflicting / Contradicting / Double Messages

• Regulating Messages

Complementing Messages

• When the nonverbal & verbal messages are consistent

  • Shaking a person’s hand while congratulating the person on an accomplishment

  • Smiling when verbally conveying good/happy news

  • Having tears in eyes while verbally conveying a very sad experience

• Complementary nonverbal cues reinforce, affirm, or elaborate the verbal message

• Complementary nonverbal messages make the interpretation of verbal messages clearer

• The behavior by itself will not accurately communicate the intended message

• Messages where the verbal and nonverbal messages complement each other are remembered more accurately

Substituting Message (aka ‘Speech-Independent Gestures’)

• Messages are conveyed only with nonverbal cues which have culturally prescribed meaning

  • Shaking head side-to-side to indicate “no” or up-&-down to indicate “yes”

  • Putting finger to lips to indicate that everyone needs to be quiet

  • Giving a “high five” to celebrate a touchdown

  • Other ex: hitting, giving the middle finger, doing the throat cut sign, holding cupped hand to ear, etc.

Repeating Messages

• The verbal & nonverbal message could stand on their own. The nonverbal cues reinforce the verbal message

• Substituting messages would be repeating messages if the verbal message were given at the same time

  • Pointing in a specific direction while giving directions to someone verbally

  • Saying “Give me a high five" while putting your hand up to receive the high five

  • Saying “please raise your hands” while also raising your hand

  • Nodding head up & down while saying “yes”

Accenting / Moderating Messages

• Nonverbal cues are used to change how the verbal message is interpreted &/or to moderate (tone down or enhance) the verbal message

  • Shaking fist or pointing a finger at someone when verbally expressing anger or frustration

  • Throwing hands up in air when verbally expressing exasperation'/frustration

  • Slamming fist on table while saying “no!”

Conflicting / Contradicting / Doubling Messages

• A discrepancy between the verbal & the nonverbal messages (opposing or conflicting messages)

• When conflicting messages occur, people tend to rely on the non-verbal information to clarify the ‘true’ intent

  • Actions really do speak louder than words

  • Telling your partner “Is there anything you want me to help you with now?” as you collapse into your chair

  • Saying “You were really the life of the party” in a sarcastic tone

  • Saying to a child “No, don’t you do that” while smiling

  • Telling a parent “Your child is so smart” as you roll your eyes

Regulating Messages

• Nonverbal behaviors that regulate the flow of the conversation

  • Looking at another person to indicate it is their turn to speak

  • “What do you think?” as you turn to look at someone

  • Touching a person’s arm to signal that you want to speak next or interrupt

  • Speaking softer to indicate the other person should speak softer

  • Moving & leaning closer to show interest in what is being said

  • Leave-taking behaviors

    • Ex: checking watch repeatedly, stepping away from speaker, packing up belongings

Communication is Context Dependent

• Cultural context

• Social context

• Environmental context

Code-Switching vs. Translanguaging

• Code-switching

  • Refers to people shifting back & forth between distinct languages in the same conversation

    • Bilingual or multilingual individuals switching back & forth between languages

• Translanguaging

  • A dynamic process where multilingual speakers strategically use multiple languages, often simultaneously, to navigate complex social & cognitive demands

Code-meshing

Combining (meshing) different codes (language elements) within one context

Social Context

Rules & norms govern how individuals communicate with each other

Environmental Context

• Setting where the communication takes place impacts the messages

  • Workplace, family setting, social group, bar, religious setting, etc.

  • Organizational culture values & norms may be different than values & norms of the social culture

  • Attraction is influenced by the setting in which a meeting takes place

Relational Dimension / Context

• The relationship between the sender & receiver influences how the receiver will interpret the message

  • Degree of formality & the designated role between sender & receiver impacts how & what is said, as well as the interpretation of messages

• History between the senders & receivers

  • The interpretation of the message is influenced by previous interactions between people

• Behaviors of senders & receivers during the interaction

How fast do people make judgements about facial expressions?

• Within 100 milliseconds regarding

  • Attractiveness, likeability, trustworthiness, competence, & aggression

  • Addition time to make judgements increased confidence in those judgements

How fast do people make judgements about physical features?

As fast as 39 milliseconds

Temporal / Chronemics

• The value & perception of time impacts the communication process

• People have different time perceptions in different cultures, which can result in miscommunication

• Ex:

  • Japan & Germany (show up early so they can start on time)

  • Switzerland & USA (show up on time)

  • India, Africa, Middle East, some Latin American countries, some Asian countries (often show up late)

First Impressions - Validation

People try to validate their first impressions

Impression Management

• Process (conscious or subconscious) where individuals try to influence other’s perceptions through regulating & controlling information during social interactions

• Occurs whenever an individual is in the presence of others

• Can focus on influencing the impression of one’s self, another person or group, an object/product, or event

  • iPhone, religious symbol, Coachella, protest

Back Region / Backstage vs Front Region / Frontstage

• Backstage

  • Where individuals prepare for their role in future interactions & where they can retreat to relax & recharge

    • gather props, rehearse

• Frontstage

  • Setting where individuals perform in front of others

    • actors; audience

Unfocused Interactions

• aka Peripheral Awareness, Passive Awareness, Peripheral Monitoring

• When people are in each other’s presence (copresent), they passively observe & modify their behaviors without a direct engagement in a shared interaction

Civil Inattention

• Individuals acknowledge other people’s existence in a public space while simultaneously maintaining their space & privacy

  • Putting attention elsewhere without being rude

• Civil inattention can help set social boundaries

• Civil inattention can help reduce stress or cognitive load in busy environments

• Civil inattention can help others maintain their face

Impression Management of Self (Self-Presentation)

• Goal

  • Present one’s self in a way the person would like to be perceived by other people

• The self is not fixed; it is a social process

  • In any social setting, individuals (social actors/performers) are constantly engaging in impression management through intentional & unintentional verbal & nonverbal interactions

• How individuals present themselves is based on the audience/group

  • Individuals use costumes & props to maintain a particular image or identity

  • Individuals project a public identity that also influences other’s behaviors

• Individuals in social interactions try to promote positive impressions of their selves while encouraging others to accept their definition of the situation

  • Thus, the individual & others collaborate in negotiating & maintaining each other’s identities & preferred definitions (co-constructing each other’s identity)

  • Think how people dress & act at a rodeo, renaissance fair, sports event, etc

• Some people carefully construct & communicate a specific image to others

  • They are very strategic in their self-impression management efforts

Body Gloss

• When people perform normal & harmless self-conscious behaviors to keep from being perceived as doing something inappropriate or wrong. This can occur during unfocused & focused interactions

Orientation Gloss

• Engaging in ‘normal’ behaviors associated with the social situations

• Ex: a person wants to buy prophylactics (condoms) but is embarrassed. so, the person walks up & down the aisle pretending to be shopping for other items close to the prophylactics until no one else is around

Circumspection Gloss

• Providing small nonverbal gestures to minimize perceived negative threats &/or stigmatization by observers

  • Ex:

    • Person makes an inquisitive facial gesture at a non-prophylactic item to draw attention away from the prophylactics

    • Person picks up the prophylactics & puts it behind another product (paper towels) in their hand when walking through the store

Overplay Gloss

• Concealing a potentially inappropriate act through an overtly non-serious or playful manner

• Ex: person gives a thumbs up & smiles to the cashier when the cashier is scanning the prophylactics. Thus, the person looks proud & saves ‘face’ by not looking embarrassed

Hyperpersonal Messages

• Individuals utilize (manipulate) computer-mediated communication to enhance their image &/or messages they send to influence others & to facilitate desired outcomes in relationships (professional, personal)

• Integrate media (social media), social experiences, & social-psychological processes; thus, it goes beyond face-to-face interaction

Computer-Medicated Communication (CMC) vs. Face-to-Face (FtF) Communication

• Fewer verbal & nonverbal communication cues in CMC

  • Can lead to great likelihood of misunderstanding misinterpreting the message which can limit the social impact of the message

• CMC has more permanence than FtF communication

  • For example, text messages or social media posts can be retained

• Less control over who sees CMC than FtF Communication

• Less verbal & nonverbal information to control in CMC

  • For example, hyperpersonal video postings or text messages do not have to regulate tactile, olfactory, chronemics, etc.

• In CMC vs. FtF, first impressions may rely more on the personality of the sender & the information being conveyed

• Higher perceived social presence in FtF compared to CMC

• More compliance with requests to FtF compared to CMC

• Increased understanding of other people’s thoughts, feelings/emotions, & traits in social situations (social sensitivity) in FtF compared to CMC

• Less information seeking & intimate self-disclosure with strangers in FtF compared to CMC

  • However, more intimate self-disclosure with friends & romantic partners in FtF compared to CMC

  • Mixed findings emerged regarding attraction, affiliation, relationship quality, & dominance

Signs of Attraction

• Physiological signs

• Nonverbals signs

Physiological Signs of Attraction/Interest

• Increased blood pressure

• Increased pulse/heart rate

  • Generally increases from 70-80 to around 90+

• Increased glandular secretions

• Breathing more rapidly

  • Which can result in “tripping over one’s tongue”

Nonverbal Signs of Attraction/Interest

• Increased signs of agitation (also called preening)

• Blushing or looking flushed

• Tensed muscles & better posture

• Open & expansive body posture

• Face

• Mouth

• Eyes

• Tone of voice

• Hand gestures

• Forward body lean

• Distance

• Biochemical theories

• Orientation

• Bodily contact & touching

• Nonverbal synchronization & mimicry

Preening

• Increased signs of agitation

  • Ex: adjusting tie, twirling hair-

• Explanations

  • Expending extra energy from increased heart rate

  • Focusing the other person’s attention on your movements

Eye Contact

• Associated with the following

  • Attention capture

  • Public self-awareness

  • Memory effects

  • Activation of prosocial behaviors

  • Positive appraisals of others

  • Attraction/Interest

• Age differences in eye gaze

• Use gaze to indicate liking &/or attraction

• Activates affective systems associated with attraction

• Prolonged stare represents intimate behavior

• Each culture has social norms for how long eye contact should be maintained

Orientation

• Angle in which people position themselves when talking

  • 45 degree angle is most often used to look at peers & the surrounding area

  • Face-to-face shows exclusive interest

  • Side-to-side allows for more body contact & demonstrates territory

  • 2 people interested in each other, might start at a 45 degree angle, then move to face-to-face, & eventually side-to-side

Nonverbal Synchronization & Mimicry

People who are interested in each other often start synchronizing their nonverbal behaviors

Vita Compared to Resume

• The term “curriculum vitae” has a slightly different connotation in Europe & some other countries. So, this document is specific to the USA

• In the USA, the vita is used in

  • Academic job search

  • Retention, promotion, tenure, & merit raises

  • Grant applications

• The vita is often framed around values associated with academia (publications, grants, research, teaching, service)

  • A vita allows the search committee to screen applicants by seeing if they are a good ‘fit’ with the department/institution

  • A vita allows grand awarding committees to see if the applicants have the required experience & scholarship to fulfill the obligations of the grant

• A resume tends toward brevity/conciseness (1-2 pages), while a vita is more comprehensive b/c it provides much more detail about academic & research/scholarly endeavors

  • Sections of the vita not usually on the resume include grants, publications, & conference presentations

• Resumes are usually looked at for 7-60 seconds. Vitae are often looked at slightly longer

General Considerations of Resume/Vita

• The primary purpose of a resume is to introduce you & get you an interview

• The resume should contain information (strengths, accomplishments) that makes you attractive to the reader & strengthens your application

• Our job is to help the reader see the important information in a quick review of our resume. Anything we do on the resume that distracts the reader defeats this purpose

• Always keep your resume current

Resume/Vita Keywords

• Applicant Tracking Systems (ATS)

  • Software that scans applicants’ job search materials & then uses an algorithm to search for keywords to find appropriate candidates

• Keywords are search terms that help recruiters find you

Appearance of Resume/Vita

• Do not underestimate the importance of appearance!

• 8.5 × 11 inches

• 1-2 pages for a resume. No specific page limit for the vita

• Have plenty of white space to make the areas more readable

• Font should be 10-12 point

• Generally, only use one typeface (Times New Roman, Arial, Verdana)

• Be careful when using color or shading

• Do not use hollow bullets

• Do not use vertical dividers

• Avoid using all caps b/c they are difficult to read

  • Use small caps instead

• Do not underline

• Use boldface & italic type sparingly to emphasize points

• No graphics or drawings

• Do not include a photograph

• Avoid columns

• Keep the format consistent within & across sections

• If your document is more than one page, then include your name & page number in the header or footer

• No errors or erasures

Resume/Vita Contact Information

• Include name, one phone number, one email, & one address

• Always include your name at the top of each page

• Do not include current job phone number & address when searching for a job

Resume/Vita Educational Degrees

• Include degree(s), major(s), minor(s), month & year of degree, & school(s)

• List degrees in reverse chronological order

• Do not include colleges you previously attended if you did not get a degree there

• Do not include high school diploma if attending college unless the job specifically asks for high school diploma

• If you are currently enrolled in college/university, then list anticipated month & year of graduation instead of the months/years you attended

• The degree is more important than the university. Thus, emphasize the degree over the university

• You can list a thesis or dissertation if it is relevant to the position in which you are applying

• List GPA if good

Resume/Vita Experience

• Include job title, dates, employer, cite, state, accomplishments/responsibilities

• Do not list addresses, phone numbers, or supervisors

• List positions in reverse chronological order

• Emphasize the job title over the place of employment

• Group jobs together under appropriate subheadings

• Don’t just list the highest position, & do not list separate positions at the same organization as different jobs

• Emphasize important skills used & accomplishments over responsibilities/duties

• Within each position, organize the bullet with the most important or relevant information first

• Do not list every job you ever had

• Do not include why you left a job

Resume/Vita Volunteer Experience, Practicum, &/or Internship

• Internships increased recruiters’ positive perceptions of applicants

• If the volunteer experience directly relates to the career, & you were treated as an unpaid employee, then list it like you would other jobs

  • Indicate if it is volunteer, internship, practicum, etc.

• If the experience was a one-time event, monthly event, or just a few hours, then list it as community service/activity

Resume/Vita Activities

• For all activities, list the time period

• Professional organizations or activities

  • Indicate the name of the organization & any leadership positions held in the organization

• Community service or activities

• College activities/organizations

  • Include this when just graduating or if you just graduated in the past few years

  • List any leadership positions held

• Generally, do not include high school activities unless you graduated from high school in the last few years

• Do not join an activity just to get it on the resume

Resume/Vita Skills

• Don’t list soft skills in your “skills” section

  • Incorporate soft skills into bullets in your experience & volunteer activities where they can be contextualized

  • Incorporate your soft skills in your cover letter &/or personal statement. When you write your cover letter/personal statement, you can show how you developed or used the skills relevant to the position

• The “skills” section should include language & technology skills, such as

  • Language skills

    • When listing languages, always include English

  • Programming languages

  • Data visualization

  • Statistics software

  • Research skills

  • Operating systems

  • Productivity software

  • Industry specific software

  • Course management software

• With the exception of language skills, don’t list your perceived level of competence in the skills section

Resume/Vita Honors

• Don’t say “honors & awards” - they are synonyms of each other

• If the name of the honor is not self-explanatory, include a short description

• Don’t include non-prestigious awards since they draw attention away from important/marketable honors

• List the date of the honor

• Don’t join a national honor society or leadership society just to “beef up” your resume

• If you join an honor society, be actively involved & seek out leadership opportunities

• As you progress in your career, start trimming your honors

Questionable Resume-Vita Categories

• Personal

• Hobbies/Personal interests

• Job objective

• References

General Considerations Regarding the Resume/Vita

• List contact information, education, & then other categories in order of importance specific to the position

• Be consistent in how you list categories & subcategories

• Compartmentalize your sections

  • Ex: education, scholarship, service, outreach

• List items within each section & subsections in reverse chronological order