Full AP Psychology Cram Packet

Hypothesis

tentative explanation - must be FALSIFIABLE - able to be supported or rejected

Operational Definition

clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables - allows replication and collection of reliable data

Qualitative data

descriptive data (eye color)

Quantitative data

numerical data - IDEAL and necessary for statistics

Population

everyone the research could apply to

Sample

the people (or person) specifically chosen for your study

Correlation

identify relationship between two variables

Directionality problem

uncertainty about which variable is influencing the other

Positive Correlation

variables increase & decrease together

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases the other decreases

Experiments

purposefully manipulate variables to determine cause/effect

Independent Variable

purposefully altered by researcher to look for effect

Experimental Group

received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple of these

Control Group

placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1

Dependent Variable

measured variable is DEPENDENT on the independent variable

Placebo Effect

any observed effect on a behavior that is "caused" by the placebo (shows effectiveness of experimental treatment). Usually fixed with blinded studies

Double-Blind

experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition people are assigned to (common in drug studies)

Single-Blind

only the participant is unaware of the condition they are assigned to - used when experimenter cannot be blind

Confounding variable

error/flaw in the study that is accidentally introduced

Random Assignment

assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random - increases chance of equal representation among groups

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

observe ppl in their natural settings

CASE STUDY

studies ONE person (usually) in great detail

META-ANALYSIS

combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes

Descriptive stats

show shape of the data

Mean

average (use in normal distribution)

Median

middle number (use in skewed distribution)

Mode

occurs most often

Bimodal

has two modes - usually indicates good and bad scores

Skews

created by outliers

Negatively skewed

mean is to the left (neg side), mode is to the right

Positively skewed

mean is to the right

Range

distance between smallest and biggest number

Standard deviation

average amount the scores are spread from the mean (bigger number = more spread)

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

establishes significance (meaningfulness)

STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE

results not due to chance, experimental manipulation caused the difference in means

EFFECT SIZE

data has practical significance - bigger is better

Confidentiality

names kept secret

Informed Consent

must agree to be part of study

Informed assent

minors AND their parents must agree

Debriefing

must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception)

Deception

must be warranted

Protection from harm

No harm either mental/physical during the experiment

Surveys

usually turned into correlation

Self-report bias

errors when collecting survey data due to participant responses

Social desirability

people lie to look good

Wording effects

how you frame the question can impact your answers

Random Sample(method of selection)

method for choosing participants for your study - everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability

Representative Sample

sample mimics the general population (ethnicity, gender, age)

Convenience Sample

select participants based on availability - less representative and less generalizable

Sampling bias

sample isn't representative due to convenience sampling

Cultural norms

behaviors of a particular group can influence research results

Experimenter bias/Participant bias

experimenter or participant expectations influence the outcome

Cognitive bias

bias in thinking or judgment

Confirmation bias

find information that supports our preexisting beliefs

Hindsight bias

"I knew it all along"

Overconfidence

overestimate our knowledge or abilities

Hawthorne effect

people change behavior when watched

Evolutionary psychology

study how natural selection influences behavior

Heredity (nature)

how genes influence your behavior

Environment (nurture)

how outside situations influence your behavior (e.g., school)

CENTRAL NS

System of the brain and spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NS

rest of the nervous system - relays information to the Central NS

Somatic NS

controls voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons

Autonomic NS

involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc) - contains the Sympathetic NS and the Parasympathetic NS

Sympathetic NS

activates fight/flight (except digestion)

Parasympathetic NS

activates rest/digest (except digestion)

NEURON

basic cell of the nervous system

Dendrites

receive incoming neurotransmitters (NTs)

Axon

action potential (AP) travels down this

Myelin Sheath

speeds up AP down axon, protects axon

Synapse

gap between neurons

SENSORY neurons

receive sensory signals from the environment and send signals to the brain

MOTOR neurons

send signals from the brain to initiate movement

Interneurons

cells in spinal cord/brain responsible for the reflex arc

Reflex arc

important stimuli bypass the brain and route through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (e.g., hand on a hot flame)

GLIA

support cells that provide nutrients and clean up around neurons

Neurons Fire with an Action Potential

ions move across the membrane, sending an electrical charge down the axon

Resting potential

neuron maintains a -70mV charge when not active

Depolarization

charge of neuron briefly switches from negative to positive, triggering the action potential

Threshold of depolarization

stimulus strength must reach this point to start the action potential

All or nothing principle

stimulus must trigger the action potential past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity or speed of the response

Refractory period

neuron must rest and reset before it can send another action potential

NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT)

Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter

Dopamine

Reward (short term) & fine movement- in the hypothalamus

Serotonin

Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep- in amygdala

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Memory and movement - in hippocampus, associated with Alzheimer's

Norepinephrine

Sympathetic neurotransmitter - too little associated with depression

Endorphins

Decrease pain

Substance P

Pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)

Oxytocin

Love, bonding, childbirth, lactation

Adrenaline

Fight/flight

Leptin

Makes you full (stops hunger)

Ghrelin

Makes you hungry

Melatonin

Sleep

Agonist

Drug that mimics a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Drug that blocks a neurotransmitter

Reuptake

Unused neurotransmitter are taken back up into the sending neuron

Treatment for depression

Reuptake inhibition