Cellular Respiration, Photosynthesis, DNA, Genetics, Protein Synthesis, Evolution

Flashcards reviewing key concepts from lectures on cellular respiration, photosynthesis, DNA, genetics, protein synthesis, and evolution.

How does ATP release energy and how is it coupled to other reactions?

ATP releases energy when a phosphate group is broken off, forming ADP. This energy is then used to perform work in the body.

What are the three steps of cellular respiration in order?

1) Glycolysis, 2) The citric acid cycle, 3) Oxidative phosphorylation

What happens during glycolysis?

Glucose is split to produce 2 pyruvate molecules, ATP, and NADH (chemical energy).

What happens during the citric acid cycle?

Pyruvate is split to produce 6 CO2 molecules, ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (chemical energy).

What happens during oxidative phosphorylation?

NADH and FADH2 are used to produce a large amount of ATP and water. This step requires oxygen.

What is the role of oxygen in cellular respiration, and what does it become?

Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain during oxidative phosphorylation. It then combines with hydrogen to form water.

Which step in aerobic cellular respiration produces the most ATP?

Oxidative phosphorylation, producing 32-34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

What is the formula for aerobic cellular respiration (reactants and products)?

Reactants: 1 glucose + 6 oxygen → Products: 6 CO2 + 6 water

What are the products of fermentation, and what cells produce these products?

In yeast, fermentation produces alcohol (and CO2). In humans and many bacteria, fermentation produces lactic acid.

What happens during cellular respiration during strenuous exercise in humans?

Muscles undergo lactic acid fermentation due to insufficient oxygen, producing lactic acid.

Why is fermentation useful/necessary in living things?

Fermentation produces ATP when oxygen is limited, even though it produces less energy than aerobic respiration.

How is photosynthesis different from and similar to cellular respiration?

The steps are different. Photosynthesis is the reverse of cellular respiration; the products of one are the reactants for the other. Photosynthesis makes glucose and oxygen.

What is the formula for photosynthesis (reactants and products)?

Reactants: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 → Products: glucose + 6 O2

What colors of light do plants absorb, and which are not absorbed well?

Plants mainly absorb blue and red light, and green light is reflected.

What are the steps in photosynthesis, and what happens in each?

Light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Light reactions split water to release energy (ATP and NADPH). The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into glucose.

How does a plant take in CO2?

Through the stomata (pores) on the leaves.

What does a plant do with the glucose that is made during photosynthesis?

The plant uses it to live and grow, stores it, or sends it to flowers (nectar) or fruit to attract pollinators and seed distributors.

What organ, tissue, organelle, and sub-organelle are locations of photosynthesis in a plant?

Organ: Leaves, Tissue: Mesophyll layer, Organelle: Chloroplasts, Sub-organelles: Thylakoids and stroma.

What living things are photosynthetic?

Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria).

What is the structure of DNA? What molecules make up an individual nucleotide base?

DNA is a double helix made of nucleotide base rungs. A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen base. The phosphates and sugars make up the backbone.

What are complementary bases in DNA, and how do they bond?

Adenine (A) and Thymine (T) are complementary, and Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G) are complementary. They are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Describe the processes of transcription and translation?

Transcription: RNA polymerase reads DNA and makes an mRNA strand. Translation: tRNA matches with mRNA, depositing amino acids to create a polypeptide, which folds into a protein.

What are the expected results for a monohybrid cross (Aa x Aa)?

75% dominant trait to 25% recessive trait

What are the expected results for a dihybrid cross (AaBb x AaBb)?

9/16 AB, 3/16 Abb, 3/16 aaB, and 1/16 aabb. These are obtained by multiplying the probabilities of each monohybrid result.

If a mom has AB type blood and her baby has B blood, what blood types can the father have?

The father can have A, B, AB, or O blood types.

How can you determine a person’s genotype from a family pedigree chart?

By analyzing inheritance patterns: If same-trait parents have opposite-trait child implies parents are dominant heterozygous. Different-trait parents, 50/50 offspring implies dominant-trait parent is heterozygous.

How do you determine the genotypes of parental gametes? For instance, what are the gametes of a parent with AaBb?

Gametes inherit one allele per gene (A or a, B or b). AaBb parent produces AB, Ab, aB, and ab gametes.

How are genetic crosses for incomplete dominant traits different from classic Mendelian crosses?

Incomplete dominance results in an intermediate phenotype in heterozygotes (e.g., red x white = pink) and the genotype ratio is related to the phenotype ratio (1:2:1)

What is the chance of a couple having 2, 3, or 4 boys in a row?

2 boys: (1/2)^2 = 1/4; 3 boys: (1/2)^3 = 1/8; 4 boys: (1/2)^4 = 1/16

How are the genetic crosses sex-linked traits different from classic Mendelian crosses?

Sex-linked traits are found on the X chromosome. Males need inherit only one affected X from mom. Females need inherit the allele from both parents to display the trait.

Suppose two normal parents have a child with cystic fibrosis (CF). What must be their genotypes?

Both parents must be carriers, heterozygous for CF (e.g., AcfA).

What is the chance that the above parents (both carriers for CF) will have a CF child?

There is a 1/4 chance their child will have CF (AcfAcf).

How are the rules of probability used to determine the chances of multiple events happening at the same time?

The law of multiplication says that the probability of 2 events happening at the same time is the product of each.

What is Darwin's theory of natural selection?

1) Variety of living things, 2) Overpopulation, 3) Competition, 4) Some have adaptations that increase survival, 5) Adaptations passed on to future generations.

Explain with an example of how certain animals have an advantage that allows them to survive better. How is this past on to future generations?

Wolves with thick fur survive a cold spell, passing fur genes for thicker fur to future generations

How did events in Charles Darwin’s life lead him to his theory of natural selection?

Darwin's observations on his voyage on the Beagle showed the adaptation of different animals. He read Lyell and Malthus

What did Darwin use as evidence for evolution? You should know at least 5 different ones.

1) Homologous structures, 2) Similar embryology, 3) Biogeographical similarities and differences 4) Artificial selection (breeding) and 5) Fossil evidence.

Explain how antibiotic resistance is an example of natural selection. What is the consequence of this for humans?

Some bacteria are resistant to the antibiotic and will reproduce. Over time, only resistant bacteria will survive. Humans have difficultly treating

A human population has a 49% chance of having attached ear lobes (recessive; aa) and 51% of having free ear lobes (dominant; AA or Aa). What is the allele frequency for attached lobes? Free lobes?

Attached = .7, Free = .3

In the above question, what is the probability of being heterozygous for free ear lobes (Aa)?

0.42

If a population of rabbits has a bell curve (normal) distribution for body size; then what kind of selection will occur if hawks decide to only eat larger rabbits? Explain.

If hawks eat only larger rabbits, then the average size of the rabbits will begin to decrease.

What conditions are necessary for Hardy-Weinberg’s equilibrium?

1) No mutations, 2) no migrations, 3) large populations, 4) no natural selection, and 5) random mating.

How might a population in normal distribution (bell curve), shift over time. Give an example of each.

If the population shifts toward one extreme and away from the other extreme, we call that directional selection. If the population shifts towards both extremes and away from the average, we call that disruptive selection. If the population shifts towards the average leaving very little of the extremes, then it's called stabilizing selection.