The Articulatory Production of English Phonetics

What is the scientific study of speech articulators called?

It is called articulatory phonetics

What is the trachea and how does air interact with it?

The trachea is the windpipe in the neck. When we breathe and speak, air from our lungs passes through the trachea and the larynx.

What is the pharynx and how does its size differ between men and women?

The pharynx is a muscular tube located just above the larynx. It is about 7 cm long in women and 8 cm long in men.

How does the soft palate (velum) function during normal breathing versus speech?

In normal breathing, the soft palate is lowered, allowing air to travel through both the nose and the mouth. During speech, it is often raised to block air from escaping through the nose, forcing it all out of the mouth instead.+

What is the difference between velar, palatal, and alveolar consonants?

• Velar consonants (like /k/ and /g/) are made when the tongue touches the soft palate.

• Palatal consonants (like /j/ in "yes") are made with the tongue close to the hard palate (roof of the mouth).

• Alveolar consonants (like /t/, /d/, and /n/) are made with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge behind the upper front teeth

What are the five parts into which the tongue is divided?

The tongue is divided into the tip, blade, front, back, and root.

What is the difference between a bilabial consonant and a labiodental consonant?

• Bilabial consonants (like /p/ and /b/) are made when the lips are pressed together.

• Labiodental consonants (like /f/ and /v/) are made when the lower lip touches the upper teeth.

Why are the jaws not considered "articulators" in the same way as the tongue or lips?

Although we move the lower jaw a lot when speaking, jaws are not true articulators because they cannot make contact with other articulators on their own.

What is the phonetic definition of a vowel?

A vowel is a speech sound produced without any obstruction (blocking) to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.

What is "distribution" in phonology and why is it important?

Distribution is the study of the different contexts and positions in which speech sounds can occur in a language. It is important because it helps linguists categorize sounds into vowels or consonants based on how they combine with other sounds, which is often more accurate than analyzing airflow alone.

the set of phonetic environments (the surrounding sounds) in which a specific speech sound or phone occurs

What are "cardinal vowels" and why do phoneticians learn them?

Cardinal vowels are a standardized reference system of extreme vowel sounds that do not belong to any specific language. Phoneticians learn them as a standard scale to describe, classify, and compare the vowels of any language in the world.

What are the three main features used to classify vowel sounds?

Vowels are classified by tongue height (how close the tongue is to the palate), tongue position (which part of the tongue, front or back, is raised highest), and lip position (rounded, spread, or neutral)

What is the "schwa" sound and where is it heard?

The schwa (symbol /ə/) is a central short vowel in English. It is very common and is heard in unstressed syllables, such as the first syllable of the words "about", "oppose", and "perhaps".

What is a "pure vowel" compared to a "diphthong"?

A pure vowel is a sound that remains constant and does not slide or glide to another sound. A diphthong is a single vowel sound that involves a continuous glide or movement from one vowel position to another.

What is the primary pronunciation rule of English diphthongs?

The first part of an English diphthong is much longer and stronger than the second part. The second part is short, quiet, and should not be pronounced too strongly.

How are English "triphthongs" composed?

English triphthongs are composed of the five closing diphthongs (/eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ/) with the schwa vowel (/ə/) added to the end.

What are the vocal folds and where are they located?

The vocal folds are two thick muscular flaps located inside the larynx. They are fixed to the thyroid cartilage at the front and attached to the arytenoid cartilages at the back.

What is the "glottis" and how does it create a glottal stop?

The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. A glottal stop (symbol /ʔ/) is made when the vocal folds are pressed tightly together, completely blocking the air from escaping.

What is "aspiration" and when does it occur in English?

Aspiration is a puff of air sounding like /h/ that occurs during the post-release phase of a plosive before the vocal folds start vibrating. It occurs in English when the voiceless plosives /p, t, k/ are at the beginning of a word.

What is "pre-fortis clipping"?

Pre-fortis clipping is the shortening effect that voiceless (fortis) consonants (like /p, t, k/) have on the vowels that come right before them. This effect is most noticeable when the preceding vowel is long or a diphthong.

How is the human head shown in the typical diagrams used to study phonetics?

The human head is shown from the side, displayed as if it has been cut directly in half

What are "vocoids" and "contoids," and who suggested these words?

A linguist named Kenneth Pike suggested these words to make the difference between sounds clearer. He proposed that sounds that do not block the air flow should be called vocoids (traditionally called vowels), and sounds that do block the air flow should be called contoids (traditionally called consonants).

What is cartilage and how hard is it?

Cartilage is the primary material that makes up the structure of the larynx. It is similar to bone, but it is less hard. You can easily feel cartilage by pressing down on the tip of your nose.

Exactly how fast do the vocal folds vibrate in men and women?

The vocal folds open and close very rapidly. In a woman's voice, they vibrate regularly between two and three hundred times per second, and in an adult man's voice, they vibrate at about half that speed (around 100 to 150 times per second)

What is an "egressive pulmonic airstream"?

This is the scientific term for air that is pushed out of the lungs. It is by far the most common type of air movement used to make speech sounds in the languages of the world.

How do our rib cages help us say long sentences without pausing?

Normally, the rib cage returns to its resting position slowly to push air out. But if we want to keep speaking a long sentence without stopping to breathe in, our rib cage can actively press down on our lungs to force even more air out so we can keep talking

What is "subglottal pressure"?

Subglottal pressure is the specific pressure of the air below the vocal folds inside the windpipe.

What are the three main differences in voice quality we can make by changing our vocal folds and subglottal pressure?

We can make three main changes:

• Intensity: Changing the loudness (such as shouting with high intensity or whispering with low intensity).

• Frequency: Changing the pitch (vibrating the vocal folds rapidly for high pitch, or slowly for low pitch).

• Quality: Creating different-sounding voices (such as harsh, breathy, murmured, or creaky voices).

What is the "glottal plosive" and is it an important independent consonant in English?

The glottal plosive (symbol /ʔ/) is a sound made by pressing the vocal folds tightly closed so air cannot pass. In English, it is not considered a highly important independent consonant because it is usually just an alternative way of pronouncing the regular plosives /p/, /t/, and /k/ in certain situations.

How do English speakers feel about the number of syllables in triphthongs like "fire" and "player"?

Most English speakers feel that words like "fire" or "hour" consist of only one syllable, while words like "player" or "slower" are heard as having two syllables

Why do phonetic symbols for long vowels use a two-dot length mark (:) if the letters are already different from short vowels?

Even without the two dots, the long vowel symbols look different from the short vowel symbols because they have different shapes. The length mark is not strictly necessary to tell them apart, but it is included specifically to help learners easily remember which vowels are meant to be held longer.

What is the proof that voiceless consonants shorten preceding vowels, instead of voiced consonants lengthening them?

Phoneticians proved this by comparing the words "right", "ride", and "rye" (which has no consonant at the end). The length of the vowel sound in "rye" is practically identical to the vowel sound in "ride". However, the vowel sound in "right" is much shorter. This proves that the voiceless /t/ at the end of "right" actively clips (shortens) the vowel, rather than the voiced /d/ in "ride" making it longer.

What is a common pronunciation mistake that gives English learners a foreign accent when pronouncing diphthongs?

The most common mistake is pronouncing a pure vowel (a flat, unmoving vowel sound) instead of a diphthong (a shifting glide). For example, pronouncing a flat [e] instead of the gliding /eɪ/ (as in "way"), or a flat [o] instead of /əʊ/ (as in "home")

What does the term "manner of articulation" mean?

It refers to the different physical ways in which consonants obstruct or block the airflow in the vocal tract (such as completely blocking it for plosives, or narrowing the path for other kinds of consonants).

How is Cardinal Vowel No. 1 [i] defined?

It is defined as the vowel sound that is as close and as far front in the mouth as possible to make without creating friction noise (which is the hissing sound you hear in consonants like /s/ or /f/).

What is the main difference between "primary" and "secondary" cardinal vowels?

Primary cardinal vowels are the vowel sounds that are most familiar to speakers of most European languages. Secondary cardinal vowels are other extreme vowel sounds that sound less familiar to those speakers.

Why are the sounds /j/ (in "yet") and /w/ (in "wet") unusual when dividing sounds into vowels and consonants?

Physically (phonetically), these sounds do not block the air and are produced like vowels, meaning they are vocoids. However, in terms of where they can appear in words (their distribution), they behave and function like consonants.

Apart from their length, what makes English short vowels different from long vowels?

They differ significantly in quality. This means they are made with distinct differences in tongue shape, tongue position, and lip position, which is why they have different phonetic symbols instead of just sharing the same symbols with length marks/

What do the terms "tense" and "lax" mean when describing vowels?

Some writers use the label "tense" to refer to long vowels and diphthongs, and "lax" to refer to short vowels.

Why are English triphthongs so difficult for foreign learners to recognize and pronounce?

In everyday speech, the continuous movement of the tongue during a triphthong is very small. Because of this small movement, the middle vowel sound (the /ɪ/ or /ʊ/ part) is barely audible, making the triphthong sound very similar to a long vowel or a regular diphthong.

What pronunciation shift is happening in BBC English with triphthongs?

Triphthongs are currently in an unstable state, and some speakers are losing the distinctions between them. For example, some newsreaders and speakers pronounce "Ireland" as if it were "Arland" (/ɑ:lənd/), or pronounce words like "tyre", "tower", and "tar" so that they sound almost identical.

What common accent mistake do learners make when trying not to pronounce the first part of the /əʊ/ diphthong (as in "home") as a back vowel?

When learners realize the first part should not be a back vowel, they sometimes exaggerate and place the tongue too far forward. This produces a sound like [eu], which gives the impression of someone trying to imitate a "posh" or upper-class accent (it is a sound commonly noticed in the speech of the British Royal Family).

Where exactly are the vocal folds attached inside the larynx?

At the front of the larynx, the vocal folds are joined together and fixed to the inside of the thyroid cartilage (commonly called the Adam's apple). At the back, they are attached to a pair of small cartilages called the arytenoid cartilages.

How does the physical vibration of the vocal folds actually work when we speak?

When the edges of the vocal folds touch or nearly touch, air pushed up from the lungs forces them apart so air can escape. As the air flows past rapidly, the folds are pulled back together again. This opening and closing repeats very quickly—about 100 to 150 times per second for men, and 200 to 300 times per second for women

What two conditions must be met for voicing (vocal fold vibration) to happen?

First, the vocal folds must be held in the correct position (close together or touching). Second, the air below them (the subglottal pressure) must be under enough pressure to force its way through.

Why is "aspiration" (the puff of air) more important than "voicing" when telling initial plosives apart in English?

Initial voiced plosives (/b, d, g/) actually have very little or no voicing at all during normal speech. Because of this, English speakers do not rely on voicing to identify sounds; instead, they tell the difference because voiceless plosives (/p, t, k/) have aspiration (a delay and a puff of air) before the vowel starts, while /b, d, g/ do not.

What happens to the sound of /p/, /t/, or /k/ if you record a word like "spin" and cut off the "s" sound?

When /p, t, k/ are preceded by /s/ at the beginning of a word, they are pronounced without aspiration. If you remove the "s" sound from the recording, English speakers will perceive the remaining sound as "bin", "din", or "gin" (voiced plosives) rather than "pin", "tin", or "kin".

What is the only scientifically reliable difference that researchers have found between "fortis" (strong) and "lenis" (weak) consonants?

While laboratory tests on muscular "force" have been inconclusive, the only consistent physical difference found is that fortis consonants have higher air pressure in the vocal tract than lenis consonants.

What are the three basic lip positions used to classify vowels?

The three basic lip positions are:

1. Rounded: where the corners of the lips are brought close together and the lips are pushed forward.

2. Spread: where the corners of the lips are pulled away from each other, like when smiling.

3. Neutral: where the lips are relaxed and not noticeably rounded or spread, such as when making the hesitation sound "er".

Why must phonetic descriptions of vowel length always mention the surrounding "context"?

We must specify the context because the actual length of any English vowel sound changes drastically depending on the sounds that come after it and whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed

What are the four physical phases involved in producing a plosive consonant?

The four physical phases are:

1. Closing Phase: When the articulators move together to form a total block.

2. Compression Phase: When the air is stopped from escaping and becomes compressed behind the block.

3. Release Phase: When the articulators move apart to let the compressed air escape.

4. Post-release Phase: What happens immediately after the air is released