Biology Exam 3

Stages of Photosynthesis:

Light Reactions, Calvin Cycle

O2

Light reactions convert light energy to chemical energy and produce __

Calvin Cycle

Occurs in the stroma; Assembles sugar molecules from Carbon Dioxide using ATP and NADPH from light reactions.

ATP, NADPH

Both stages of Photosynthesis are linked by (), and ()

Stroma

The Calvin Cycle is located in the ()

Electromagnetic Radiation

Energy from the sun.

Chlorophyll a

Absorbs blue-violet and red light to reflect green.

Chlorophyll b

Absorbs blue and orange light, reflects a yellow-green. Absorbs stored energy into Chlorophyll A.

Carotenoids

Yellow-orange pigments that absorb mainly blue-green light.

Photon

Fixed quantity of light energy.

Higher

The shorter the wavelength, the () the energy

Energy, unstable

When electrons jump to an electron shell further from the nucleus, it jumps and emits () . These electrons are ()

Photophosphorylation

What Chloroplasts use to transfer light energy into chemical energy of ATP.

Calvin Cycle (Second Definition)

Makes sugar in the chloroplast by atmospheric Carbon Dioxide with ATP and NADPH generated by the light reactions to produce G3P.

Glucose

A plant cell will use G3P to make () and other organic molecules.

CO2, ATP, NADPH

Inputs of Calvin Cycle: (), (), ()

3 Carbon Sugar (G3P)

Outputs of Calvin Cycle: ()

Cellular Respiration

Plants use 50% of the Carbohydrates for their own () ()

Cellulose

Example of an Organic Molecule from the Calvin Cycle includes ()

C3, open

A () photosynthesis used by most plants and algae. The stomata is () and lets out water but takes in CO2.

Rubisco

An enzyme that forces the Stomata open for long periods of time resulting in water loss.

Cool, moist, normal

C3 Photosynthesis works best in () and () climates (Hint: Not hot or dry), with () Light Levels.

Closes

In C3 Photosynthesis, when it is hot and dry, the Stomata () to conserve water and builds up O2 (Not good for the plant).

C4 Photosynthesis, dry, warm

A photosynthesis used by many grasses in () and () environments (NOT moist).

Short

In C4 Photosynthesis, the Stomata is open for only a () time of day, resulting in less water loss.

Pep (Enzyme)

C4 Enzyme that has a high affinity for CO2, allowing the stomata to be open less often and preserves H2O.

CAM Photosynthesis, arid, hot

A Photosynthesis used by succulent plants (I.E. Cactus) in () and () environments.

50g

CAM plants use only ()g of water (most water efficient)

C3, C4, CAM

Order of least to most efficient Photosynthetic Pathways (3 of them).

Life

The Greenhouse effect traps heat to keep the Earth warm enough to support ()

45%, highest

Carbon Dioxide today has increased ()%, and is the () is has been since 1850.

Coal, Oil, Gasoline

CO2 has increased by 45% mainly due to a combination of fossil fuels including (), (), ()

Cell Division

Reproduction of cells at the cellular level. It requires the duplication of Chromosomes.

Daughter Cells

Genetically identical cells formed when a cell undergoes division by mitosis.

Asexual Reproduction

Offspring produced a single parent, without the participation of sperm and eggs. Each daughter cell is identical to the parent cell.

Sexual Reproduction

Fertilization of an egg by sperm to produce offspring. Each offspring inherits a unique combination of genes from BOTH parents.

Binary Fission

Asexual reproduction of bacteria and archaea dividing into equal halves.

Inward

In Binary Fission, the plasma membrane grows (), dividing the parent into two daughter cell.

More

Humans have () genes than bacteria.

46

Humans have () Chromosomes.

Duplicate

Early in the division process, the chromosomes ()

Centromere

A constricted region of a chromosome and plays a key role in helping the cell divide up its DNA during division

92

In humans, they typically have 46 duplicated Chromosomes, and () chromatids.

The Cell Cycle

An ordered series of events from the time a cell is formed until it divides in two.

Interphase

Duplication of Cell Contents.

Mitotic Phase

Cell Division.

G1

Cell Grows in size.

S

DNA synthesis (replication occurs).

G2

Cell grows and prepares for division.

Mitosis

Nuclear Division.

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasmic Division.

Interphase

When the chromosomes become visible (Duplication of the genetic material is completed)

Prophase

First stage of Mitosis; Mitotic spindle forms, which guides the separation of the two daughter chromosomes.

Mitotic Spindle

Cytoskeleton structure formed which helps separates the two daughter chromosomes.

Prometaphase

Chromatins coil into highly condense chromosome; Nuclear membrane displaces

Metaphase

The Mitotic Spindle is fully formed and chromosomes align single file with centromeres.

Anaphase

The Chromosomes separate from the centromere, divide and move towards the poles.

Telophase

Cell elongation continues, the nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes and they uncoil.

Cleavage Furrow

A contracting ring of microfilaments. Helps separate cell contents in Animal cells during cytokinesis.

Plant Cytokinesis

The process in which vesicles fuse into a Membrane Cell Plate, which develops into a new cell wall between two daughter cells.

Growth Factors

Proteins that stimulate division.

Anchorage Dependence

The process by which animal cells are dependent on a solid surface to divide (extracellular matrix).

Density-dependent Inhibition

Process by which after cells form a single layer, they stop dividing when they touch each other.

Growth

Cells require the () factors to begin dividing.

Checkpoints

Control points where signals regulate the cell cycle (G1, G2, M).

3

There are () Control Points in the Cell Cycle Control System

Stop

If a growth factor is not released at the 3 major checkpoints, the cell cycle will ()

G0

A non-dividing growing phase of the cell cycle at the G1 checkpoint.

Receptor Protein

Gives signals to the growth factor to relay proteins and influencing the cell cycle.

Cancer

Disease of the cell cycle which causes cells to proceed past checkpoints even in the absence of growth factors.

Infinitely

Cancer cells will divide () , unlike normal cells which divide only 20-50 times.

Proto-Oncogenes

Normal genes that promote cell divisions.

Tumor-suppressor genes

Genes which inhibit cell division and function in repairing DNA damage.

Four

To get a full-fledged cancer cell, there are usually () or more somatic mutation.

Destroy

The immune system usually is able to recognize abnormal cells and () them

Benign

Abnormal cells remain at the original site, haven’t spread to other tissues or parts of the body yet.

Malignant

Abnormal cells can spread to other tissues and parts of the body.

Metastasis

Spread of cancer cells through the circulatory system, goes past what malignant does.

Normal

High energy radiation not only damages cancer cells, but can also damage () cells

Carcinomas

Cancers that arise in external or internal body coverings.

Sarcomas

Cancers that arise in supportive & convective tissues.

Leukemias and Lymphomas

Cancers that arise from Blood-forming tissues.

Paclitaxel (Taxol)

Drug which freezes mitotic spindles which stops actively dividing cells from proceeding past Metaphase.

Vinbalstin

Drug which prevents mitotic spindles from forming in the first place.

Side effects of Chemotherapy

Normal cells divide rapidly, which causes: Nausea, Hair Loss, Infection

Somatic Cell

Normal body cells that contain a specific number of chromosomes (dependent on species).

Homologous

Most species have a pair of () chromosomes, or two chromosomes in a pair, one being from the mother, the other being from the father.

Gametes

An egg and sperm cell with one set of chromosomes. Known as a Haploid (n)

46, 23

Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from () to ().

Four

In meiosis, the cell divides twice to form () haploid daughter cells (gametes) instead of two diploid.

Synapsis

The fusion of chromosomes at the start of meiosis. They exchange corresponding segments for greater genetic diversity.

Meiosis I

Each homologous pair divides into daughter cells, with one set of chromosomes consisting of two chromatids.

Meiosis II

The same as mitosis, with exception of starting with haploid cells. Its purpose is to have half as many chromosomes as the parent.

Genetic Recombination

The rearrangement of DNA sequences by the breakage and rejoining of chromosomes or chromosome segments.

Nondisjunction I

The failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes which can result in an excessive loss or gain of chromosomes.

Nondisjunction II

The failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II.

Causes an extra chromosome, resulting in Down Syndrome.

Trisomy 23

1

Women on average, when the ovulate, produce () egg per month.

Karyotype

Photogenetic inventory of an individual's chromosomes

Deletion

Loss of a chromosome segment.