Key Concepts in Behavioral Psychology and Learning

Behavioral Perspective

This approach in psychology focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned and reinforced. It emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior, often through conditioning processes.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. For example, pairing a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus) can eventually make the bell alone elicit salivation (conditioned response) in a dog.

Association

In psychology, this refers to the connection or link between two events, ideas, or sensations, such that the occurrence of one brings the other to mind. It's fundamental to learning processes like classical and operant conditioning.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning during which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is formed, leading to the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

Associative Learning

A learning process in which a relationship is formed between two stimuli or between a behavior and a stimulus. Classical and operant conditioning are primary examples of associative learning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response without prior conditioning. For example, food is an unconditioned stimulus that elicits salivation.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus. For instance, salivation in response to food is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned. For example, salivating in response to a bell that has been associated with food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. For example, a bell that, after being paired with food, causes a dog to salivate.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the association weakens, and the conditioned response diminishes.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period without further conditioning. This suggests that the learned association is not entirely forgotten.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog might learn to respond to a specific tone but not to other tones.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. For instance, if a dog is conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch, it may also salivate to tones of different pitches.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Also known as second-order conditioning, this occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus to elicit the same conditioned response. For example, if a light is paired with a tone that has been associated with food, the light alone may eventually elicit salivation.

Counterconditioning

A behavior therapy technique that involves replacing an undesirable response to a stimulus with a more desirable response. This is achieved by associating the stimulus with a new, positive response.

Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food or taste that has been associated with nausea or illness. This form of conditioning can occur after just one pairing of the food and the illness.

One-Trial Conditioning

where a strong association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is formed after just one pairing, resulting in a learned response with only one exposure

Biological Preparedness

The concept that organisms are innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. For example, humans are more likely to develop phobias of snakes and spiders than of cars or electrical outlets, even though the latter are more dangerous in modern environments.

One-Trial Learning

refers to the broader concept of acquiring a new behavior or knowledge from a single exposure to a stimulus

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. It's a form of learning where an organism reduces its reactions to a stimulus that is neither harmful nor rewarding.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened when it's followed by reinforcement and weakened when followed by punishment. This learning process is based on the consequences of behavior.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, this refers to any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior. This can be through positive reinforcement (adding a pleasant stimulus) or negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant stimulus).

Punishment

Any stimulus that represses a behavior.

Law of Effect

Proposed by Edward Thorndike, this principle states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a rewarding stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. For example, giving a child praise after they clean their room.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. For instance, taking painkillers to eliminate pain reinforces the behavior of taking painkillers.

Primary Reinforcers

Naturally reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and shelter. These do not require learning to be effective.

Secondary Reinforcers

Also known as conditioned reinforcers, these are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers. Examples include money, grades, and praise.

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between situations where a behavior will be reinforced and where it will not. This leads to the behavior being performed only in the presence of specific stimuli.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency for a behavior to occur in the presence of stimuli similar to those that have been associated with reinforcement. This means the behavior is generalized to similar situations.

Shaping

refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for an animal to revert to instinctual behaviors after a behavior has been learned through operant conditioning. This indicates that learned behaviors can be overridden by innate behaviors.

Superstitious Behavior

Actions that are repeated because they are believed to produce reinforcement, even though there is no actual causal relationship between the behavior and the reinforcement.

Learned Helplessness

A mental state in which an organism, after experiencing uncontrollable and adverse situations, becomes passive and unable to avoid subsequent negative situations, even when escape is possible.

Reinforcement Schedules

The rules that determine how and when a behavior will be followed by a reinforcer. These schedules can be continuous or partial and significantly affect the strength and rate of the response.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which every occurrence of the desired behavior is followed by a reinforcer. This schedule is effective for establishing new behaviors.

Partial Reinforcement

Also known as intermittent reinforcement, this schedule reinforces a behavior only some of the time. It includes fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules.

Fixed Interval

A reinforcement schedule where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule often leads to a scalloped pattern of behavior, with responses increasing as the time for reinforcement approaches.

Variable Interval

A reinforcement schedule where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. For example, a rat receives a food pellet after pressing a lever exactly 30 times.

Variable Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high and steady rate of responding, as seen in gambling behaviors.

Scalloped Graph

In behaviorism, this graph pattern occurs when responses start slowly but then increase in speed as the time for reinforcement approaches. This pattern is typical in fixed-interval schedules, where reinforcements are available at specific, fixed times.

Social Learning Theory

Proposed by Albert Bandura, this theory posits that social behavior is primarily learned by observing and imitating the actions of others. It also emphasizes the role of rewards and punishments in influencing behavior.

Vicarious Conditioning

This process involves learning behaviors through observation of others' experiences with reward and punishment, rather than through direct experience.

Modeling

A component of social learning theory, this refers to the process of learning behaviors by observing and imitating others. This can involve live models, verbal instruction, or symbolic models such as those found in media.

Insight Learning

A type of learning that occurs suddenly through understanding the relationships between various parts of a problem, rather than through trial and error.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and isn't immediately demonstrated in behavior. The knowledge remains hidden until there's a reason to use it.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of physical locations, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment. These internal maps are developed through experience and can be used to plan routes and understand spatial relationships.