Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning attempts to explain how we acquire and maintain voluntary behaviors. It emphasizes learning based upon consequences. Rewards, punishment, as well as having no consequences shape our behavior.

Operant

Any voluntary behavior

discrimitive stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

ex. the discrimitive stimulus of a classroom makes people choose to raise their hands when they want to speak. At a restaurant (a different discrimitive stimulus) people would speak freely instead of raising their hands.

Edward Thorndike Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. This becomes the basis for operant conditioning. Thorndike used cats in "puzzleboxes" to do his research.

positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement involves following an operant (voluntary behavior) with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the response being repeated in similar situations.

Ex. Every time a child makes honor roll her parents give her $50, so she increases studying to ensure she will get the money.

negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus (something that is physically or psychologically uncomfortable) from a situation, strengthening the occurrences of the behavior that brings about this removal. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT INCREASES BEHAVIOR!!!!!! People increase the behaviors that help them avoid or escape aversive stimuli.

ex. coming to school on time to avoid getting a detention

Superstitions

Sometimes accidental or coincidental reinforcement can lead to the development of superstitions. Ex. A person does well on a test and now believes that their ¨lucky¨ pen will help them on every assessment.

Primary reinforcer

Primary reinforcer is one that humans naturally gravitate to such as food, water, and warmth or shelter.

secondary reinforcer (conditioned reinforcer)

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

ex. money

Positive punishment (punishment by application)

Punishment by application involves the presentation of a punishing stimulus following a response in order to decrease behavior.

ex. Getting yelled at, "go to your room", getting a speeding ticket, getting a bad grade…

Negative punishment (punishment by removal)

Punishment by removal involves the loss or withdrawal of a reinforcing stimulus following a response in order to decrease a behavior.

ex. can't drive the family car, cell phone taken away, can't play X-Box, can't go on the computer…

shaping

Successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced. This makes it possible to operantly condition behaviors that may not happen otherwise.

ex. A person is rewarded with praise for making small improvements in their swing in softball. The praise is continued as the person makes closer approximations of the desired swing until hopefully they are using the correct batting technique.

chaining (behavior)

A technique where a person or animal is required to perform several different behaviors, in sequence, before a reward is given.

ex. A dog must run up and down a ramp, through a tube, and then stand on two legs in order to earn a treat.

overjustification effect

When positive reinforcement decreases someone's intrinsic motivation to do something because it has been replaced with an extrinsic reward. In these cases the reward actually makes it less likely that a person would do the activity or task on their own.

ex. If students were rewarded for every book they read, they may be less motivated and less likely to read on their own if the overjustification had taken place.

Premack Principle

Sometimes it may be difficult to find a reinforcer that works. For example, money may not motivate every person. David Premack suggested observing and using individuals' desired behaviors to motivate less desirable ones. Premack Principle: Preferred behaviors can be used to reinforce non-preferred behaviors.

ex. "clean your room and you can play X-Box"

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats. Skinner believed that people are born with NO FREE WILL and that all behaviors are linked to rewards and punishment. Skinner developed the "schedules of reinforcement" as well.

Skinner box (operant chamber)

A small glass cage with a food dispenser used to research the "schedules of reinforcement"

schedules of reinforcement

Reinforcement can be continual (given for every response) or it can be partial. Skinner found that when reinforcement was partial there could be various arrangements called schedules of reinforcement.

Fixed interval, Variable Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio

fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement happens after a certain number of correct responses that is set and unchanging

ex. buy two get one free

fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement happens after a set amount of time has passed.

ex. a paycheck at the end of each week

variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement happens after an average amount of correct responses. ex. gambling

variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement happens after an average amount of time has passed. ex. random drug testing