FLI3113-FinalExamGuide

What did Massimo D’Azeglio exclaim in 1861 about Italy? And what did he mean?

“With Italy made, we must now make the Italians.” This quote is in reference to the Italian national identity. At the founding of Italy, such an identity did not exist. Italy had up until then been a patchwork of nations with different cultures and interests. “Making the Italians” means forging a unifying national identity.

What Dickie means by ‘social fictions’ referring to nations?

Nations are in large part imagined structures. There are much better metrics for measuring a person’s identity like wealth, race, and gender. A wealthy French man has more in common with a wealthy British man than a poor French man, for example. Nonetheless, the people of a nation are bound together by the fiction that being a nation somehow ties them together. There are complications when taking into account the diversity of individual fictions of what a nation is or should be, but this is largely the case.

Explain Dickie’s concept of narrative, symbols, of a nation ‘being set against’ and geographical space.

These are all ways that nationalism perpetuates itself. A narrative is a history of a nation that endows it with its identity. Official symbols like flags and unofficial symbols like baseball (in the case of the United States) represent a nation, implying that the nation is something real. A nation is “set against” other nations, and the contrast defines the nation (Canada is not the United States, for example).  Geographical space is important because it gives the nation an image; think about the skylines of New York or the Roman Coliseum. These locales are representative of their nations.

Why Dickie refers to Italy as ‘centerless’?

Italy does not have one “central” location. Milan is the commercial capital. Florence is the heart of high culture. Rome is the official capital. The “parts” of Italy are spread across the nation; there is no New York City or London there.

How did U. Bossi refer to the south of Italy in 1992?

He links them to Africa, associated with backwardness, and to Fascism.

What does the term ‘Mezzogiorno’ mean?

Mezzogiorno refers to the South of Italy. The word literally means midday. The South gained this name because of its sunny conditions and warm weather. Mezzogiorno can also be an insult, though. Since the South is often linked to crime, connecting something to the Mezzogiorno is like calling it bad.

Explain Banfield’s concept of ‘Amoral familism’.

Amoral familism is a concept that Banfield used to describe the culture of Southern Italy. Southern Italians are generally more concerned with family affairs than they are with larger events. Events on a national or international level are unimportant so long as the family is safe and comfortable. This attitude, Banfield postulated, kept Southern Italy from becoming a modern land in terms of politics and economics. Notably, Banfield’s theory has since been discredited.

Explain Jane and Peter Schneider’s key cultural codes of Sicily: Onore, Furberia, Amicizia.

These are codes of honor, cleverness, and friendship. Honor refers to Sicilian resistance against the Church and State’s Interference in family affairs. Friendship refers to the creation of makeshift coalitions to further economic or political interests. Finally, cleverness refers to the legitimization of the ruthless pursuit of personal interests. Together, the codes form the fabric of Sicilian life though they may be a bit rigid.

During which specific week Dante sets the action of the Divine Comedy? And when specifically (dates) the journey starts and ends?

The Divine Comedy takes place during Holy Week. Specifically, it begins on Holy Thursday, the Thursday prior to Easter, and it ends on the Wednesday after Easter. YEAR 1300

What is the ‘terza rima’? Explain how it works with an example using letters.

Terza rima is a type of rhyming pattern in which Dante wrote the Divine Comedy. Each stanza in terza rima is called a tercet meaning they consist of three lines (significant because of three’s connection to the holy trinity). The center line of the first tercet will rhyme its last word with the outer two lines of the next tercet. This is represented by letters as follows: aba bcb cdc.

Which ones are the three mysterious beasts appearing in the introduction of the Comedy and what does each of them represent according to Dante?

Dante comes face to face with a lion, a leopard, and a she-wolf. Each represents a different Aristotelian vice. The lion represents incontinence, a lack of self-restraint. The leopard represents violence. Finally, the she-wolf represents malice.

How does Dante explain specifically the creation of the Inferno and Purgatory?

The two realms are linked in that they were born of the same cataclysm. Hell exists directly beneath Jerusalem. The chasm was created when Lucifer was cast out of heaven, sent plummeting into the Earth below. His massive body carved out a deep abyss. The displaced rock became purgatory.

How many and what are the names of the Cantiche in the Divine Comedy? With which same word each Cantica ends?

There are three: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso

How many Canti (be specific for each Cantica) does the whole Comedy include?

There are 100 total broken into 34 inferno, 33 purgatorio, and 33 paradiso.

Who is Dante’s guide in Paradise? And why does he pick that specific figure for this role?

Beatrice is Dante’s guide in paradise. Virgil could not continue into paradise with Dante because he was never a Christian and was therefore unable to enter. Dante chose to write Beatrice as the guide for paradise because he had long been enamored with her, focusing her centrally in much of his work. He saw her as a beautiful, holy woman, so there was truly nobody better to guide Dante.

What is the Empyrean and how Dante describes it?

The Empyrean is the resting place of the angels, saints, Mary, and God. It exists outside time and space and is unbelievably bright and vast. It exists in layers like petals on a rose where angels and saints gather around rivers of light.

Describe the structure of the Decameron in terms of how many days and novels (per day and total) are included in the book.

There are 100 stories in the book. They are told 10 a day over the course of 10 days.

What does Boccaccio talk about in the Proemio of the Decamoron?

Boccacio starts the Decameron with a message explicitly for his target audience. He is aiming to capture the interest of noble women. To that end, he says that he seeks to ease the hearts of lovesick women by sharing stories of his own love life. The passage is extremely amorous.

What does the introduction of the book Decameron describe? Explain that historical background.

Boccacio began by talking about the terror of the time, the Black Plague. He shares the contemporary view that the plague spread from the uncivilized East. Additionally, he explains the belief that the plague was sent by God as a punishment. The superstitious people of Italy were deeply affected by this belief. Boccacio’s introduction is a great insight into the social and physical affects of the plague.

What does ‘interplay among three levels of voices’ mean? Be specific.

The interplay among the voices is the way in which the Decameron is framed. At the highest level, you have Boccaccio’s description of the black plague, an introduction to each day,  and the proemio. Within that framing, you have the next voice, the ten characters gathered to tell stories. In the next and final voice, you have the stories themselves.

Explain why the Decameron is viewed as Boccaccio’s masterpiece.

It was a significant work because it was a founding part of the Italian renaissance. The work described the contemporary Italy, an Italy ravaged by plague and inundated with the church’s teachings. Boccacio’s world is not innocent and holy; it is a true to life depiction of human experience. It is full of sexual desire, corrupt church officials, and self-serving cleverness. The Decameron is a masterpiece because it does not shy away from the darker part of humanity but embraces and even pokes fun at it.

Who was Leonardo’s first master?

Andrea Del Verrocchio

Explain what Leonardo meant by the expression ‘knowing how to see’, ‘Saper vedere’.

Many artists would simply look at and draw objects. Leonardo insisted on something deeper. He advised young painters not to just look at objects but apprehend him. One must seek to understand the object’s function and its place in the world. Leonardo famously followed his own advice by dissecting human corpses to further his understanding of anatomy.

What specific moment Leonardo describes in the “Last Supper”?

It was the moment that Jesus told his disciples that one would betray him.

Where is the “Last Supper” located (be specific)?

The Last Supper is on the wall of the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan

Explain the four ‘isms’ featuring the Renaissance period by using the Gioconda as an example of how the painting reflects the four ‘isms’.

It focused on individualism by focusing on one person. Similarly, it reflected humanism by having a human as the subject of the painting (rather than the divine or landscapes). By that same token, the mona lisa reflects secularism as it is not religious in content. Finally, it reflects scientific naturalism as it was created with Leonardo’s knowledge of anatomy at its heart. The Gioconda is extremely detailed and realistic.

What does ‘Refeudalization’ mean?

Governments tried to respond to the declining economy by selling off land. This land was taken by the wealthy. Rather than investing their money in risky endeavors, these new landlords sought to protect their positions with the law. The wealth of the country, and therefore the power of the country, was concentrated in this land-owning class. Peasants were at the whim of this class.

Describe the 1674 revolt in Messina

Italy was plagued by unrest in this century. Messina was no different as a revolt broke out mainly due to food shortages. The Spanish had an extreme response. They pulled down the town hall, ploughed the ground, and sowed the ground with salt.

Which device did Galileo improve and how?

Galileo improved the telescope by improving the lenses.

Whose system’s theory Galileo’s discoveries supported? How did his discoveries support it?

Galileo supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. Galileo had observed the phases of Venus as well as the moons of Jupiter. Additionally, he made new observations about physics. Specifically, he studied pendulum motion and the pull of gravity (though he had no concept of gravity as we know it now). By combining his research, Galileo understood that all physical objects obey the same laws; the planets are no different than objects on Earth. Controversial!

What was the ‘official’ position of the Church toward the new scientific ideas? Refer to Karl Popper

observation.

The church was all too happy to allow scientific research with one big caveat. Karl Popper believed that science could disprove but never prove theories, and this was the church’s perspective as well. In the case of Galileo, they allowed some Copernican theory but fully expected the theory to reinforce the church endorsed heliocentric view. A few small observations on physics were fine, sure, but they did not want Galileo rocking the boat too much.

 Explain the trial against Galileo. What was the crime he was charged with; what did he have to publicly

declare?

The elderly Galileo was brought to trial by the church. He was vehemently suspected of heresy though was not being charged with heresy. Publicly, he was forced to abjure his errors and swear to never repeat his mistakes. Though nearly blind and on house arrest, Galileo still managed to produce one more work where he did, in fact, repeat his errors.

What does ‘eppur si muove’ mean and to what does it refer? Why the emphasis on ‘eppur’?

It means “and yet it moves!”. This refers to Galileo’s steadfast belief that the Earth moves around the sun. This was not a view shared by the church who put Galileo on trial for heresy. Eppur is emphasized as it means “YET”. Galileo was saying, “You think that, YET I am still correct.”

How did the modern Catholic Church (which Pope in particular) centuries later justify their previous action against Galileo Galilei?

Pope John Paul II was the first pope to apologize for the handling of Galileo. He claimed that the church had difficulty at the time separating theology and science. The church had just misinterpreted Galileo’s work as an attack on their faith. 

What was the Florentine Camerata, who were its members, and what was its mission?

The Florentine Camerata was a group that met often to discuss the history and aesthetics of music. The two most significant members were the father of Galileo Galilei, Vincenzo Galilei, and Giulio Caccini. The group aimed to understand ancient Greek music. It was the belief of cultured Florentines of the time that this music had the power to move the soul and influence behavior, and they wanted to recapture it.

What was the meaning of ‘singing with attention to the words’?

Singing with attention to the words means emphasizing the lyrics in the composition in the music. This is what the Florentine Camerata believed gave ancient Greek music its emotional power. The music of the Italy of the time often had many melodic lines and complicated instrumentals, but it was their belief, specifically the belief of Vincenzo Galilei, that these should be eliminated to restore music to its peak form. Music, to them, should be a single melodic line that imitates natural speech patterns.

When was ‘Eurydice’ first performed and for which occasion?

October 6th, 1600 – performed at the wedding of King Henry IV and Maria de’ Medici.

What was an ‘intermedio’?

They are allegorical musical numbers performed between acts in a play. Many types of music including madrigals, vocal solos, choral music, instrumentals, and more could be included in an intermedi. Sometimes, they were even more interesting than the plays which they accompanied. Jacopo Peri got his start as a performer of intermedi.

 What was the general reaction to Peri’s opera?

There was mixed reception. Some at court preferred more familiar forms of music. Some found Euridice boring. It did seem to please the Grand Duke Ferdinando, the bride’s uncle, so it could still be called a success.

 Who was Costanza Bonarelli? Explain her relationship with Bernini.

Costanza Bonarelli was a married woman with whom Bernini was having an affair. He passionately sculpted a bust of her face. Thereafter, he discovered her cheating on him with his brother. Bernini beat his brother severely and paid a servant to slash Bonarelli’s face.

Describe the story of the sculpture ‘Pluto and Proserpina’.

This sculpture is a depiction of Proserpina’s abduction at the hands of Pluto. The act is brutal, and this is reflected in Bernini’s artistry. Prosperina’s flesh is notably indented by Pluto’s fingers in brutally realistic fashion.

Describe the difference between Bernini’s David and Michelangelo’s David.

Michelangelo’s David is much more static. He stands posed as if he were a model with a serene look on his face. By contrast, Bernini intended to capture the energy of David’s battle with Goliath. Bernini’s David is depicted mid-battle, his face set with focus and exertion.

What was Bernini’s first commission from Pope Urban VIII?

Urban VIII wanted Bernini to create a new façade for the church of Santa Bibiana.

Describe the features of Bernini’s ‘baldacchino’ in St. Peter’s church.

The baldacchino is a massive canopy that looms over the tomb of St. Peter. 4 Bronze columns twist up towards a superstructure populated by putti and a bronze angel at each corner. Laurel branches and bees adorn the upper parts of the columns. The structure is topped with a gilt-bronze orb supporting a large cross.

 Describe the specific requirements to Bernini from Pope Alexander to build the square in front of St. Peter’s church.

There was a long list of requirements. The square had to be able to hold thousands of people. It had to provide shelter from the sun. The two sites from which the Pope could appear had to be visible from anywhere in the square.

What is the ‘Cathedra Petri’?

It is the throne of St. Peter. It is a massive throne that once belonged to the first pope (or more likely the Carolingian emperor Charles the Bald). Bernini encased it in bronze gilt and placed it in the apse of St. Peter’s Basilica. It is flanked by four church fathers.

Who was the leader of ‘Giovane Italia’, and what was its goal?

Mazzini was the leader of the Giovane Italia. He was an exiled and intelligent revolutionary. The goal of the Giovane Italia was to unite Italy as a republic. Garibaldi took part in Mazzini’s revolt against Piedmont in Genoa. The Giovane Italia failed in their revolt, and Mazzini and Garibaldi were sentenced to death in absentia.

Why was Garibaldi named “The Hero of Montevideo”?

The story of this title begins simply with Garibaldi driving cattle to Montevideo. He intended to find work as a commercial traveler and teacher. Instead, he became commander of Uruguay’s navy. He led them in battle against Argentina. Because of his heroism in this struggle, he became known as the Hero of Montevideo.

Who were ‘I Mille’? What was the mission of the ‘Spedizione dei Mille’?

Mazzini had successfully incited popular insurrections in Sicily, so Garibaldi sought to capitalize on the opening. He gathered 1000 young volunteers from all over Italy. Setting sail from Genoa, they headed towards Marsala on the Western coast of Sicily. They conquered from there, heading North towards Naples. In four short months, they had taken the whole of Southern Italy in the name of Victor Emanuele II.

Describe the meeting in Teano between Garibaldi and Vittorio Emanuele II.

Vittorio Emanuele II marched South towards Garibaldi. The two met at Teano. Garibaldi was the first to salute him as the King of Italy. He dutifully surrendered all of the land that he had conquered to Vittorio Emanuele II. This was the moment that the North and South of Italy were united.

When and where did the first Italian parliament occur?

Turin - March 17th, 1861

Until which year Italy remained a monarchy?

1946

What was the connection between President Lincoln and Garibaldi?

Lincoln invited Garibaldi to participate in the American Civil War. He wanted to give Garibaldi command of an army corps. Garibaldi refused. He wanted Lincoln to come out strongly against slavery and also wanted to be named commander-in-chief. This, of course, did not come to pass.

Who wrote ‘The Leopard’ and which was their relationship with the main character of the book?

Giuseppe Tomasi was the author of The Leopard. He was the Prince of Lampedusa and Duke of Palma. Specifically, he was the last Prince of Lampedusa. Throughout his life, he wrote little aside from The Leopard. He was a descendant of the Prince who was the basis for the main character of the book, Don Fabrizio.

In what month and year, the story of ‘The Leopard’ opens and what is the historical background?

May 1860. The story takes place in Sicily during the Risorgimento. Specifically, it takes place towards the beginning of the Spedizione dei Mille. The Garibaldini have begun taking hold in Sicily. This is threatening to local nobles who are concerned for the future of the nobility. It was the twilight of the Bourbon’s hold on Sicily.

Explain why Chevalley visited Don Fabrizio and how and why does Don Fabrizio respond to his proposal.

Chevalley is in Sicily to invite Don Fabrizio to be an Italian senator. With Sicily now a part of Italy, it needs representatives in government. He explains to the Don what a senator does and why he is being considered. The visit was a courtesy before Chevalley formally put Don Fabrizio’s name forward for consideration. Don Fabrizio refuses Chevalley’s proposal. Fabrizio feels too attached to the Bourbons and the old Sicily. He feels that change has come too late for not just himself but for much of Sicily who feel out of place in the new social order. As an alternative, Fabrizio recommends Don Calogero. A new government needs someone comfortable with the new order.

What was Giolitti’s main goal for the Italian economy?

Giolitti was a man who was very concerned with maintaining order. To that end, he wanted to quell any revolutionary attitudes among the Socialist Party. He therefore focused on lifting up the working class in various ways. Giolitti’s government remained neutral during strikes, allowing many unions to successfully gain rights for their workers. A mandatory day of rest was introduced, and children under 12 were banned from employment. The workers were grateful for their newfound power, but there was now discontent brewing among employers who believed that a focus on social justice would destroy Italian industry.

What was the Belle Epoque?

This was a period of European history. It was a time where the middle class was growing, and more people were able to spend money more loosely. In the context of Italy, this helped grow its economy in the Giolittian boom. Part of this was tourism, but remittances were a much larger factor. Millions of Italian emigrants were sending money back to family in their homeland, and this created a healthy trade balance for Italy.

Describe Futurism’s philosophy.

The Futurist philosophy was a way to explain the fascination with modernization. Futurists believed that the increasing comfort of the modern day was not what endeared people to modernization. They believed that it was the opposite – the excitement, insecurity, and danger of the modern day – that was endearing. Futurists did not reject modernity. What they rejected was the idea that the supreme end in life is comfort.

Why did Giolitti fail to build support from the intellectuals?

Giolitti’s economy was not the kindest to intellectuals. Industrial workers were being lifted up while the intellectuals, lacking technical skills, found themselves in a precarious position. They lacked financial stability and felt like victims of the changing Italy. It didn’t help that Giolitti seemed unconcerned with building support among intellectuals. Thus, the loose ideas of the intellectuals slowly crystalized into new political groups hostile to Giolitti.

After the 1919 election, what was Mussolini’s political move?

Mussolini had at that point attempted to run for office under his new movement, Fasci di Combattimento, the early fascist movement. He failed miserably; he received not even one vote in his own hometown. Learning from his failure, Mussolini moved his party to the right, cutting out any conspicuously left wing elements. What remained was a “concern for national greatness” and a revulsion towards Socialists. This attracted conservatives in Italy.

Describe the factors that contributed to the growth of the Fascist movement in Italy.

A large contributing factor was a general fear of Socialism. The socialists, bolstered by the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia, became more militant and placed emphasis on revolutionary rhetoric. On a related note, this was also a time plagued by enormous inflation rates, and, in the latter half of the 1920s, a recession. Italy was altogether in a state of chaos, and this set the stage for fascism to step in and “restore calm”.

When did the March on Rome happen and what was it about?  What happened to Mussolini as a consequence of the March on Rome?

The March on Rome occurred on October 28, 1922. 40,000 members of the squadristi, moving from a mass rally, marched on Rome. They seized police stations, post offices, and prefectures. Perplexingly, the King refused to send any troops to stop their advance. This was the start of fascist rule.

What was the Fascist Militia? (more than 1 sentence)

The Fascist Militia was a vehicle for Mussolini to further funnel power up towards himself. Even with fascists unified under a party, rank and file members were still scattered and loyal to individual ras. On the surface, the Fascist Militia was formed to “safeguard the fascist revolution”. Really, Mussolini had brought the disparate segments of the squadristi under his control. The power was taken from the hands of ras and given to Mussolini.

What was the Battle of Grain and when did Mussolini establish it?

The Battle of Grain began in 1925. This was an initiative of Mussolini’s government, and the extravagant title was made to rouse the emotions of the nation. It was focused on strengthening Italy’s wheat production. More specifically, its aim was to make Italy more self-sufficient. This was all one part of Mussolini’s isolationist and nationalist rhetoric.

What was the Battle of the Lira and when did Mussolini establish it? 

The battle of Lira began in 1926. This was an initiative of Mussolini’s government, and the extravagant title was made to rouse the emotions of the nation. The lira was revalued upwards, and there was a focus on combating inflation. This was to present an image of Italian strength to the rest of the world. Mussolini was, after all, very focused on appearances.

What were the Lateran Treaties? Explain the details about the plebiscite that Mussolini staged after the Lateran Treaties.

The Lateran Treaties settled the Roman question. The Vatican was given autonomy as a sovereign state. Additionally, the church was granted a large sum of money to compensate for their loss of the papal states during the Risorgimento. In secondary and primary schools, religious education became compulsory. Catholic Action, a main lay organization of the church, was ordered to stay out of politics. The treaty was largely a political stunt meant to garner more support for Mussolini both from Catholics within Italy and in the world at large. With the Catholic church now on his side, Mussolini made a vital move to bolster his power further. The plebiscite asked voters to accept or reject a single list of 400 deputies that would form a new Chamber of Deputies. They were all, of course, Mussolini’s men. Eight and a half million voted yes while only 136,000 voted no. Mussolini’s authority was unquestionable. 

What does ‘It was the Rome of the Caesars, not of the Popes’ mean?

Mussolini was looking to rebuild a Roman empire. Italy would look to the spirituality and symbolism from the ancient Roman empire. This empire was not Catholic. It was a polytheistic empire. Fascism was essentially pagan in nature.

Who were the ‘Balilla’?

They were a youth organization under fascism (boys 8 to 15)

Why was April 21st designed as a holiday during the fascist regime?

Founding of the Roman Empire

Explain the racial laws under the Fascist regime from 1937 and what the position of the Catholic Church was toward the Fascist racial laws?

The laws were, to put it lightly, very racist. Italy had recently conquered Ethiopia and, as imperialists tend to do, sought to show off the racial superiority of Italians. Cohabitation between Africans and Italians was outright banned. Sweeping anti-semetic legislation would follow, and it would effectively ban Jews from participating in Italian society. The Church’s response was a very gentle condemnation.

Explain what ‘cult of the Duce’ means.

This was not a cult in a religious sense. It refers to the near deification of Mussolini, the Duce. Fascism glorified individual “great men”, and Mussolini was no different. He would hold massive rallies to “thunderous” applause. This reverence would go to absurd extremes like the requirement for officials to stand at attention when on the phone with Mussolini.

Who were the partisans and what were their contributions toward the outcomes of the war?

The partisans were the group who fought against fascism and German occupation. They were a group made up of subgroups: Former Italian soldiers, escaped prisoners of war, Communists, Catholics, and more. Since many of their enemies were their countrymen, their battles sometimes resembled civil war. Different groups within the partisans had different agendas, but nonetheless, they formed a unified front. On April 25th, 1945, they liberated Italy.