Research Methodology: Key Terms and Concepts

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key terms and concepts related to research methodology, including quantitative and qualitative research, various sampling techniques, experimental designs, and ethical considerations.

Quantitative Research

Research that operates with variables, especially focusing on data that can be quantified.

Qualitative Research

Research focusing on in-depth study of human experiences that cannot be easily quantified.

Variable

A characteristic that can take on varying values; measured in quantitative research.

Construct

A theoretically defined variable, such as anxiety or aggression, that cannot be directly observed.

Operationalisation

The process of expressing a construct in terms of observable behavior.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher to examine its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable expected to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable.

Correlational Studies

Research design where no variables are manipulated; relationships between variables are measured.

Descriptive Studies

Research focusing on describing variables separately rather than investigating their relationships.

Sampling

The process of selecting individuals from a population to participate in a study.

Credibility

The degree to which the results of a study can be trusted to reflect reality.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to larger populations.

Random Sampling

Method where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being included.

Stratified Sampling

Sampling method that ensures the sample reflects the same proportions of characteristics as the population.

Convenience Sampling

Participant recruitment based on ease of access rather than random selection.

Self-selected Sampling

Recruiting volunteers for a study, often resulting in a non-representative sample.

Matched Pairs Design

An experimental design where participants are matched based on specific characteristics.

Repeated Measures Design

An experimental design where the same participants are exposed to multiple conditions.

Counterbalancing

Technique used in repeated measures to control for order effects.

Quasi-experiments

Studies where participants are not randomly assigned to groups, often limiting causal inferences.

True Experiment

Research design involving random assignment to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Field Experiments

Experiments conducted in real-world settings, which may lack control over extraneous variables.

Natural Experiments

Studies where the independent variable occurs naturally and is not manipulated by researchers.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study can establish a causal relationship between IV and DV.

External Validity

The generalizability of findings from a study to other populations or settings.

Construct Validity

The extent to which operationalizations accurately capture the theoretical construct.

Sampling Techniques

Methods utilized to select participants for research studies.

Researcher Bias

Unconscious influences that may affect study design, data collection, or interpretation.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions.

Participant Bias

When participants alter their behavior based on their awareness of being observed.

Sensitivity Bias

Participants may distort their answers to sensitive topics to hide secrets.

Acquiescence Bias

The tendency of participants to agree with statements or questions regardless of their actual opinion.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Dominant Respondent Bias

Occurs when one participant influences the responses of others in a group setting.

Credibility Checks

Procedures used to verify the accuracy of data collected during a research study.

Iterative Questioning

A technique used to clarify ambiguous responses by rephrasing questions and returning to previous topics.

Thick Descriptions

In-depth accounts that provide context and meaning to research findings.

Triangulation

Using multiple methods or sources to enhance the credibility of research findings.

Ethics in Research

Guidelines that ensure the welfare of participants and integrity of research.

Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed and voluntarily agree to participate in a study.

Anonymity

Ensuring that a participant's identity cannot be linked to the data they provide.

Confidentiality

The obligation of researchers to protect the identity of participants and their data.

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive details about the study following their participation.

Deception in Research

Withholding certain information from participants when necessary for the study.

Cost-benefit Analysis

Evaluating the potential benefits of a study against its possible risks and costs.

Ethics Committees

Groups that review research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Data Fabrication

The unethical practice of inventing or falsifying research data.

Plagiarism

Using someone else’s work or ideas as if they were one’s own without proper attribution.

Publication Credit

Ensuring that all contributors to a work receive appropriate recognition for their contributions.

Sensitivity in Reporting

Careful handling of sensitive personal information resulting from research findings.

Social Implications of Research

Consideration of how the reporting of research findings might affect society.

Observation

A method used by researchers to gather information about behavior in natural settings.

Participant Observation

Research method where the observer becomes part of the group being studied.

Naturalistic Observation

Observation conducted in natural settings without manipulation.

Overt Observation

Participants are aware they are being observed, which may influence their behavior.

Covert Observation

Researcher observes participants without their knowledge, limiting ethical issues but risking bias.

Structured Observation

A systematic approach to recording behavior using predefined criteria.

Unstructured Observation

Observation without a predefined structure, capturing noteworthy behaviors as they occur.

Interview Technique

Method used to gather qualitative data through direct conversation with participants.

In-depth Interviews

Qualitative method focusing on participants' subjective experiences and interpretations.

Semi-structured Interviews

Combines fixed questions with flexibility to allow follow-up queries.

Structured Interviews

Interviews with a predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order.

Focus Group

A qualitative discussion involving multiple participants, facilitating interaction and diverse perspectives.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of a unique individual or group, often employing various methods.

Quota Sampling

Predefined quotas for specific characteristics of participants to be included in a study.

Purposive Sampling

Recruitment of participants based on predefined characteristics relevant to the study.

Theoretical Sampling

Type of purposive sampling where data collection stops at saturation.

Snowball Sampling

Participants help researchers recruit further participants through their social networks.

Sample-to-Population Generalization

Generalizing findings from a sample to the broader population it represents.

Case-to-Case Generalization

Transfer of findings from one case to another based on detailed context.

Ethical Treatment of Participants

Ensuring that participants are treated with respect and dignity throughout the research process.

Longitudinal Study

Research conducting observations or measurements over an extended period.

Cross-sectional Study

Research capturing data at a single point in time across different subjects.

Mixed-Methods Research

Combining both qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study.

Validity in Research

The extent to which research measures what it intends to measure.

Reliability in Research

The consistency and stability of research results across multiple trials or tests.

Experimental Mortality

Participants dropping out of a study, which can skew results.

Demand Characteristics

Cues that might inform participants of the purpose of the study, possibly altering their behavior.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations influence the outcome of the study.

Regression to the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme scores tend to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Testing Effect

Improvement in performance due to familiarity with test format rather than the intervention.

Instrumentation Change

Alteration of measurement tools during a study that may affect results.

Historical Threat

External events affecting a study's outcomes, compromising internal validity.

Maturation Threat

Natural changes within subjects over time that can affect study results.

Subjective Interpretation

Analysis of data that is influenced by the researcher's personal viewpoint.

Contextual Factors

Elements of the environment that may impact participants' behavior and study outcomes.

Researcher Integrity

The commitment to ethical practices in conducting research and reporting results.

Post-study Debriefing

Process of informing participants about the results and aims of the study after completion.

Research Benefits

Positive outcomes expected to result from conducting a research study.

Research Risks

Potential negative consequences that may arise from participant involvement in a study.

Feedback Mechanism

Process for researchers to receive and integrate participant insights to improve methods.

Informed Assent

Agreement from participants who cannot give full consent, such as minors, with parental approval.

Voluntary Participation

Participants have the right to choose to be in a study and can withdraw at any time.

Mandatory Reporting

Legal and ethical obligation to report certain findings, such as child abuse.

Intervention

Any treatment or action intended to bring about change in participants.”},{

Participant Rights

Entitlements of individuals in research including privacy, consent, and informed participation.

Debriefing Process

Step taken to inform participants about the nature and results of the study post-participation.