Police Systems Chapters 1-4 Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts, case laws, historical eras, organizational structures, and police roles from Chapters 1 through 4.

Two Fundamental Police Powers

Authority to make arrests and the legitimate authority to use physical force.

Free Society Paradox

Police are expected to protect citizens' rights while simultaneously regulating and restricting their conduct.

Bill of Rights

The first $10$ amendments to the U.S. Constitution that provide civil liberties and protections against government overreach.

Arthur Niederhoffer

Described the police officer as a "Rorschach test in uniform" because citizens view police through their own past personal experiences and biases.

Impossible Mandate

Coined by Peter Manning; the expectation that police can eliminate crime even though they have zero control over root causes like poverty, unemployment, and family conditions.

Overpolicing vs. Underpolicing

Overpolicing is the perception of too much aggressive police presence; underpolicing is the perception of too little protection and slow response times.

Predatory / Street Crime

Homicide, robbery, rape, burglary, and assault; local police spend most time on these because their primary workspace is public streets.

Social Agency of First Resort

Because police are available 24/7/365 via 911, people call them for non-crime emergencies like mental illness, addiction, and homelessness.

Good Ends

The desirable, legitimate goals of policing (e.g., catching a violent criminal or stopping an attack).

Dirty Means

Unethical or illegal tactics used by officers to achieve good goals (e.g., planting evidence or conducting an illegal search).

Frazier v. Cupp (1969)

U.S. Supreme Court case ruling that police deception during interrogations (lying to suspects) is legally permissible.

State v. Jackson (1983)

North Carolina Supreme Court case affirming that police interrogation deception is legally permitted under state law.

N.C.G.S. § 14-277.1 (Communicating Threats)

A Class 1 misdemeanor in NC for willfully threatening bodily harm or property damage in a way that causes a reasonable person to believe it will be carried out.

N.C.G.S. § 14-32 (Felonious Assaults)

Class C felony if with intent to kill and inflicting serious injury; Class E felony if without intent to kill; Class D felony if against an emergency worker (officer, firefighter, medic).

NC Innocence Inquiry Commission (2006)

An $8$-member independent state agency established by the NC General Assembly to investigate post-conviction claims of factual innocence.

Constable

The first appointed law enforcement officers in colonial America; handled stray livestock, unruly children, civil tasks, and church attendance.

The Watch

Colonial groups of men who patrolled towns on foot at night to watch for fires and crime, alerting the town using whistles, rattles, and the "hue and cry".

Slave Patrols

Southern patrols created to catch runaway slaves, monitor movements, and search living quarters; formed in SC ($1702$), VA ($1726$), and NC ($1753$).

Colonial Sheriff

Borrowed from the English "shire reeve"; appointed by the colonial governor to apprehend criminals, collect taxes, supervise elections, and summon a posse.

Industrial Revolution & Urbanization (Mid-1800s)

Technological shift to factories and massive city growth that created ethnic tensions, riots, and the need for formal, full-time police departments.

Sir Robert Peel (1829)

Father of modern policing; created the London Metropolitan Police Department (LMPD) based on visible foot patrol to prevent crime, which became the model for early American departments.

Political Era of Policing (Mid-1800s to Early 1900s)

The first era of American policing where politicians controlled hiring, firing, and operations through political patronage; rampant corruption and bribery.

Curbside Justice

Physical beatings delivered on the street with wooden batons by early beat cops in place of making formal arrests.

Black Codes & Jim Crow Laws

Post-Civil War laws that enforced racial subjugation and legal segregation, which were officially enforced by white police officers.

Police Matrons

The first female police department employees hired in the late 1800s; duties were restricted to managing female prisoners and juvenile offenders.

Rogues Gallery (1858)

A centralized collection of photographs of known criminals first compiled by the New York City Police Department to help identify suspects.

Alphonse Bertillon (Bertillonage)

French criminologist who created an identification system based on taking $11$ physical body measurements; replaced in the early 1900s by fingerprinting.

The Dragnet

Early police tactic of arresting or rounding up all known criminals in an area for interrogation whenever a major crime occurred.

The Third Degree

The brutal physical interrogation of suspects (beatings with rubber hoses, blackjacks, sweatboxes) to extract confessions.

Brown v. Mississippi (1936)

U.S. Supreme Court case ruling that confessions extracted through physical beatings and torture violate the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.

Reform / Professional Era (Early 1900s to 1960s)

Movement to remove politics from policing, introduce civil service merit exams, and focus strictly on fighting crime and rapid response.

August Vollmer

Police Chief of Berkeley, CA; known as the "father of American law enforcement"; advocated for college education for cops, two-way patrol radios, and forensic crime labs.

O. W. Wilson

Student of Vollmer, Chicago Police Chief ($1960$), and author of Police Administration; championed motorized patrol and fast response times to 911 calls.

The 1960s Crisis

Decade of civil rights protests, rising crime, and urban riots where predominantly white police forces were viewed as an "occupying army"; landmark court cases (Mapp, Miranda) restricted police tactics.

Community Problem-Solving Era (1970s to Present)

Current era of policing that emphasizes working alongside citizens to identify and solve community problems.

Coproduction

The core concept of community policing stating that police and citizens must work together to produce neighborhood safety and prevent crime.

Broken Windows Theory (1982)

Theory by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling stating that unaddressed minor disorder creates fear, drives citizens away, and invites serious predatory crime.

Herman Goldstein

Criminologist who created Problem-Oriented Policing (POP) and the SARA model; warned against the "means over ends syndrome".

Means Over Ends Syndrome

When police care more about how things are done (response speeds, patrol miles, ticket counts) than the actual goal of solving problems.

Max Weber's 5 Principles of Bureaucracy

1. Division of Labor (Specialization), 2. Hierarchy of Authority, 3. Written Rules/SOPs, 4. Impersonal Relationships, 5. Competence/Merit Hiring.

Hierarchy of Authority / Chain of Command

Rank structure where orders flow down and accountability flows up, with each level having more authority than subordinates.

Span of Control

The specific number of subordinates that one individual supervisor is responsible for overseeing.

Unity of Command

The bureaucratic rule that every officer reports to and receives orders from only one direct supervisor.

Quasi-Military Organization

Police departments mirror the armed forces through uniforms, rank titles (Sergeant, Lieutenant, Captain), weapons, tactical teams (SWAT), and command-and-control operations.

Police as Monopolies

Police departments have exclusive geographic jurisdiction and face no competition; citizens cannot choose a competitor if service is poor.

Michael Lipsky (Street-Level Bureaucracies)

Public agencies funded by taxes where front-line workers have wide on-the-spot discretion while processing predominantly low-income clients.

Street Cops vs. Management Cops

Street cops prioritize on-the-job autonomy and peer loyalty; management cops prioritize budget, liability, rule adherence, and public image.

Local Police Department Distribution

Nearly half ($480/0$) of U.S. departments employ fewer than $10$ officers, but the $50/0$ of departments with $100+$ officers employ $630/0$ of all sworn police.

The 5 Largest U.S. Police Departments

1. New York City (NYPD), 2. Chicago, 3. Los Angeles (LAPD), 4. Philadelphia, 5. Houston.

Patrol Unit

The core "backbone" of any department, typically accounting for about $700/0$ of sworn officers and providing 24/7 service.

Sheriff's Office Statutory Duties

Unlike city police, sheriffs are elected officials responsible for: 1. Operating the county jail, 2. Courthouse security, and 3. Serving civil court processes (evictions, subpoenas).

State Police vs. Highway Patrol

State police have full statewide criminal and traffic authority; highway patrol agencies focus primarily on highway traffic and commercial vehicles (major investigations handled by a State Bureau of Investigation/SBI).

Jeanne Clery Act (1990)

Federal law requiring colleges and universities receiving federal funding to publish annual campus crime statistics, maintain an open daily crime log, and issue timely emergency warnings.

Department of Justice (DOJ) Agencies

FBI (broad federal crime/terrorism), DEA (drug laws), ATF (firearms, explosives, arson), and USMS (fugitives, federal courts, prisoner transport, WITSEC).

Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Agencies

CBP (border/ports of entry), ICE (interior immigration/transnational crime), Secret Service (protection and counterfeiting/financial fraud), and TSA (transportation security).

Gatekeepers of the Criminal Justice System

Officers decide through street-level discretion who gets arrested and enters the system and who is diverted or let go.

Giving Meaning to the Law

Laws are just words on paper until an officer exercises discretion and chooses to enforce them on the street.

Actual Patrol Shift Workload

Studies show patrol officers spend only $180/0$ to $260/0$ of their shift time on crime-related matters; $750/0$ to $800/0$ is spent on routine patrol, paperwork, traffic, and general service.

Incapacitation

Physically stopping someone from committing crimes by arresting/jailing them or confiscating their weapons.

Deterrence

Persuading a person not to commit a crime through the threat of punishment; requires Certainty, Swiftness, and Severity.

Why Police Deterrence Is Limited

Police clearance rates are low (less certainty), and police have no control over court delays (swiftness) or statutory sentences (severity).

Pretext Stop

Stopping a vehicle for a legal, minor traffic violation (like a broken tail light) as a justification to investigate a hunch about other crimes (drugs, weapons).

Whisper Stop

A stop made for a minor infraction to quietly identify the occupants for a separate active investigation without tipping them off.

Egon Bittner

Sociologist who stated that the defining core of policing is the legitimate authority to use coercive physical force in any emergency situation.

Continuum of Force

Standard levels of force: 1. Officer Presence/Verbal Commands $\rightarrow$ 2. Bodily/Empty-Hand Control $\rightarrow$ 3. Less-Lethal Weapons (OC spray, Tasers) $\rightarrow$ 4. Deadly Force (firearms).

Oleoresin Capsicum (OC Spray)

An inflammatory agent derived from cayenne peppers that causes intense burning, swelling, and involuntary closing of the eyes.

Taser

Electronic control device that fires dart probes delivering electrical currents to cause neuromuscular incapacitation (or drive-stun mode for pain compliance).

Three Styles of Policing (James Q. Wilson)

Legalistic Style: Strict, by-the-book enforcement with high arrest and citation rates; Watchman Style: Emphasizes order maintenance and keeping the peace, using informal warnings and discretion over formal arrests; Service Style: Focuses on helping community members, responding to service calls, and diversion over formal arrests.