AP Environmental Science: Ultimate Review

Tragedy of the Commons

Refers to the overuse and depletion of shared or public resources by individuals acting in their own self-interest.

Clearcutting

A logging practice where all the trees in an area are cut down, leading to habitat destruction, reduced biodiversity, and increased soil erosion.

Monocropping

A modern agricultural practice that reduces soil fertility and increases vulnerability to pests.

Tilling

An agricultural practice that disrupts soil structure and increases erosion and carbon emissions.

Slash-and-burn agriculture

Clears land by burning, temporarily increasing nutrients but ultimately leading to soil degradation.

Fertilizers

Provide nutrients to crops but contribute to runoff and eutrophication.

Irrigation

Can cause waterlogging and salinization.

Mechanization

Improves agricultural efficiency but relies on fossil fuels.

GMOs

Genetically modified organisms that increase yield and pest resistance but can reduce genetic diversity.

Furrow irrigation

Involves digging trenches along crops; it's cheap but inefficient.

Flood irrigation

Floods fields and is moderately efficient but can cause waterlogging.

Spray irrigation

Uses overhead sprinklers, is more efficient, but requires energy.

Drip irrigation

Delivers water directly to roots, minimizing water loss but is costly to install.

Pesticides

Include insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides used to protect crops.

Pesticide treadmill

Occurs when overuse of pesticides leads to resistance.

Biomagnification

Occurs when toxic substances like DDT accumulate up the food chain, affecting predators at the top.

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)

Cost-effective meat production method that maximizes output but produces large amounts of waste.

Free-range grazing

Allows animals to roam and eat naturally, reducing disease but requiring more land and higher costs.

Methane emissions

A significant environmental issue contributed by both CAFOs and free-range grazing.

Overgrazing

An environmental issue associated with free-range grazing.

Water pollution

An environmental issue linked to both CAFOs and free-range grazing.

Overfishing

Overfishing depletes fish populations, reduces biodiversity, and disrupts marine ecosystems.

Bycatch

Bycatch is the accidental capture of non-target species.

Sustainable fishing practices

Solutions include sustainable fishing practices, catch limits, and aquaculture.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture can supplement wild fish stocks but also has its own environmental risks.

Mining impacts

Mining practices vary but generally result in habitat loss, soil and water pollution, and long-term landscape damage.

Surface mining

Surface mining (e.g., strip mining, open-pit mining) is highly destructive.

Subsurface mining

Subsurface mining has fewer surface impacts but is more dangerous.

Acid mine drainage

Acid mine drainage occurs when sulfide minerals react with water and air to produce sulfuric acid, contaminating water.

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA)

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) requires restoration of mined land.

Urbanization

Urbanization replaces natural land with impervious surfaces, increasing runoff, flooding risk, and pollution while creating urban heat islands.

Habitat fragmentation

Urbanization also leads to habitat fragmentation.

Ecological footprint

An ecological footprint measures the environmental impact of an individual's lifestyle in terms of resource use and waste production.

Developed nations

People in developed nations tend to have larger footprints due to higher consumption and energy use.

Sustainable practices

Sustainable agriculture and land use practices aim to protect soil, conserve water, and maintain productivity.

Soil conservation techniques

Soil conservation techniques include contour plowing, windbreaks, and crop rotation.

Soil fertility

Soil fertility can be maintained with organic fertilizers and cover crops.

Water conservation practices

Water conservation practices include using efficient irrigation systems and collecting rainwater.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) uses multiple strategies like crop rotation, biological control (natural predators), and targeted pesticide use to reduce reliance on chemicals.

IPM benefits

IPM is cost-effective, reduces environmental harm, and delays pest resistance.

Aquaculture definition

Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic species in controlled environments.

Aquaculture issues

However, issues include disease, pollution from waste, and the risk of escaped species harming natural ecosystems.

Ecological succession

Forests naturally regenerate through ecological succession, especially after disturbances like fires or logging.

Prescribed burns

Prescribed burns are controlled fires that mimic natural processes, reduce wildfire risk, and promote the growth of fire-adapted species.

Pioneer species

Succession allows ecosystems to recover over time, starting with pioneer species and ending in mature forests.

Ecology

the study of connections between biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components

Biosphere

Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found

Ecosystem

a community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy

Community

populations of different species living in a particular place

Organism

an individual living being

Habitat

location where a species could live

Niche

a species role in its environment - Preferred habitat, position in the food web, mating & eating behaviors

Competitive Exclusion Principle

"No two species can occupy the same niche in the same habitat at the same time"

Fundamental Niche

possible niche

Realized Niche

actual niche with competition

Resource Partitioning

the division of limited resources by species to help avoid competition in an ecological niche

Symbiosis

Close and long-term interaction between two species in an ecosystem

Mutualism

(+/+) Ex: pollination of plants by animals

Commensalism

(+/0) Ex: barnacles living on the jaws of whales

Parasitism

relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of another

Ectoparasites

are external (fleas, ticks, lice, leeches & mosquitos)

Endoparasites

are internal (disease-causing bacteria, protists such as malaria, parasites, and tapeworms)

Terrestrial Biomes

biomes determined based on the average monthly precipitation in a particular location

Climatogram

a chart representing climate data, including average monthly precipitation

Tundra

Cold and treeless biome with low-growing vegetation; soil is completely frozen in winter

Permafrost

the underlying soil that is frozen throughout the entire year

Taiga (Boreal Forest)

made up primarily of coniferous evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons

Temperate Rainforest

Moderate average temperatures and high precipitation that supports the growth of very large trees

Temperate Seasonal Forest

Characteristic warm summers and cold winters with over 39 inches of precipitation

Deciduous

a tree or shrub shedding its leaves annually

Shrubland (Woodland)

also called the chaparral; hot dry summers and mild, rainy winters

Temperate Grassland (Cold Desert)

Cold, harsh winters and hot, dry summers dominated by grasses and non-woody flowering plants

Tropical Rainforest

Warm and wet, with little seasonal temperature variation; contains more biodiversity per hectare than any other terrestrial biome

Savanna (Tropical Seasonal Forest)

Warm temperatures and distinctive wet and dry seasons; soil is fairly fertile and can be farmed due to high decomposition rates

Desert

Hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse vegetation

Cacti, euphorbs, and succulent plants

Able to retain water making them well adapted to this biome

Aquatic Biomes

Characterized by salinity, depth, temperature, turbidity, and nutrient availability

Turbidity

The quality of being cloud, opaque, or thick with suspended matter

Freshwater Biomes

A vital resource for drinking water

Streams

Characterized by flowing fresh water, originating from underground springs or runoff from rain/snow

Rivers

Wider and carry larger amounts of water

Changing water flow

Changes biological communities; fast flow = fewer producers, more turbidity & more dissolved oxygen; slow flow = more producers, less turbidity & less dissolved oxygen

Littoral Zone

Shallow & emergent plants

Limnetic Zone

Open water

Profundal Zone

Sunlight does not reach

Benthic Zone

Muddy/sandy bottom

Oligotrophic Lake

Low productivity, clear water

Mesotrophic Lake

Moderate productivity

Eutrophic Lake

High productivity, lots of algae/plants

Wetlands

Land that is submerged or saturated with water for at least part of the year, but shallow enough to support emergent vegetation

Swamp

Contain emergent woody vegetation (trees)

Freshwater Marsh

Contain non-woody vegetation (cattails)

Bog

Very acidic wetlands containing sphagnum moss and spruce trees

Marine Biomes

Algae in marine biomes supply a large portion of the Earth's oxygen and also take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Ocean

Deep water located away from the shoreline where sunlight can NOT reach the bottom

Intertidal Zone

The area of a seashore which is covered at high tide and uncovered at low tide

Photic Zone

The layers of the ocean reached by sufficient sunlight to allow plant growth

Aphotic Zone

The deep zone of an ocean or lake receiving too little light to permit photosynthesis

Benthic Zone (Ocean)

Lowest layer of a lake, sea, stream or river

Coral Reef

Most diverse marine biome