The Enlightenment and Nationalism: 16th to Early 20th Century

Nicolaus Copernicus's Theory

Challenges the geocentric view of the universe.

Johannes Kepler's Discoveries

Figures out that planets follow elliptical orbits.

Galileo Galilei's Observations

Using the telescope, observes that the celestial bodies are not perfect and unchanging.

Isaac Newton's Laws

Develops laws of motion, mechanics, and gravity, providing a framework for understanding the natural world.

Francis Bacon's Emphasis on Empiricism

Argues that knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation.

Thomas Hobbes's Social Contract Theory

Argues for a strong central government in exchange for law and order.

John Locke's Social Contract and Natural Rights Theories

Posits that individuals have natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the right to revolt against unjust governments.

Emphasis on Reason and Individualism

Intellectual movement emphasizing reason over tradition and individualism over community values.

Rise of Rationalism

Belief that reason is the most reliable source of true knowledge.

Spread of Empiricism

Idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses and rigorous experimentation.

Development of Deism

Belief in a God who created the universe but does not interfere in its workings.

Emergence of Atheism

Complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of a divine being.

Articulation of Natural Rights

Belief that individuals are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon (e.g., Locke's life, liberty, property; Jefferson's life, liberty, pursuit of happiness).

Development of the Social Contract Theory

Idea that governments are formed by the consent of the governed to protect natural rights, and the people have the right to overthrow tyrannical governments.

Advocacy for Popular Sovereignty

The right to rule resides in the people.

Support for Constitutional Government

Government whose power is limited by law.

Advocacy for Separation of Powers

Division of government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Emphasis on Civil Liberties

Promotion of freedom of speech and religion.

Development of Laissez-faire Economics

Advocacy for minimal government intervention in the economy, as described in The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Emergence of Utopian Socialism

Visions of ideal, cooperative communities.

Development of Classical Liberalism

Belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced spending.

Early Feminist Thought

Advocacy for women's rights and equality, including education and political participation.

American Revolution

Influenced by Enlightenment ideals of natural rights and the right to revolution.

Publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations

Provides a foundation for capitalism.

Haitian Revolution

A successful slave rebellion inspired by Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality.

Spread of Nationalism

Growing sense of commonality among people based on shared culture, language, religion, and desire for self-rule.

Latin American Wars of Independence

Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and led by figures like Simón Bolívar.

Development of Socialism

Advocates for public or direct worker ownership of the means of production.

Formation of the Fabian Society

Gradual socialists favoring reform through parliamentary means.

Greek War of Independence

Fueled by Greek nationalism and influenced by Western ideas, leading to independence from the Ottoman Empire with the help of Britain, France, and Russia.

Reform Bills in Britain

Broadened male suffrage, reflecting liberal ideals.

New Zealand Wars

Conflicts between Maori and British due to increasing British control and land pressure, contributing to a sense of Maori nationalism despite British victory.

Revolutions of 1848 (Europe)

Driven by nationalism and liberalism, seeking independence and constitutional governments.

Italian Unification (mid-19th century)

Led by figures like Count di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi, driven by Italian nationalism.

German Unification (mid-19th - 1871)

Engineered by Otto von Bismarck using nationalism and realpolitik through a series of wars.

Development of Ottomanism (1870s-1880s)

Attempt by the Ottoman state to create a more modern, unified state, ironically intensifying nationalist sentiments among ethnic groups.

Rise of Balkan Nationalism

Increasing contact with Western ideas led to the development of nationalism in regions like Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, contributing to the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Philippine Revolution (1896-1898)

Fueled by Filipino nationalism, spurred by the execution of José Rizal and the desire for independence from Spain.

Emergence of Zionism (late 19th century, Theodor Herzl)

Movement for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Influence of Socialist Principles in Western Europe

By the mid-20th century, socialist ideas significantly influenced most of Western Europe.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

English philosopher who emphasized empirical methods of scientific inquiry, believing knowledge comes from sensed experience.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

English philosopher who argued in Leviathan (1651) that the natural state of humanity is bleak and that people enter into a social contract to give up some rights to a strong central government for order.

René Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized reason and individualism.

John Locke (1632-1704)

English philosopher who argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the idea that people have the right to revolt against unjust governments.

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

English physicist and mathematician considered one of the most influential scientists of all time.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Scottish economist and philosopher who advocated for laissez-faire economics and free trade in his book The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

French political philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent tyranny.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778)

French Enlightenment writer and philosopher who championed civil liberties, including freedom of speech and religion, and criticized religious intolerance and injustice.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Swiss-born philosopher who further developed the social contract theory and emphasized the concept of the 'general will' of the people as the guiding force in government.

Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

French utopian socialist who believed that scientists and engineers could work with businesses to create efficient and beneficial societies.

Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

French utopian socialist who advocated for the organization of society into cooperative communities called 'phalanxes.'

Robert Owen (1771-1858)

Welsh social reformer and utopian socialist who established model industrial communities based on cooperation and improved working conditions.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

English writer and advocate for women's rights. In her Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), she argued for the equal education and rights of women.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

Irish statesman and philosopher considered a founder of modern conservatism. He criticized the radicalism of the French Revolution.

Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)

Savoyard philosopher and writer who was a staunch conservative and opposed the Enlightenment and revolutions.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

American Founding Father and principal author of the Declaration of Independence, which incorporated Enlightenment ideals such as 'unalienable rights.'

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)

Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in the independence movements of several South American countries.

Count di Cavour (Camillo Benso)

Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who strategically used diplomacy and realpolitik to lead the unification of Italy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian military leader and nationalist who played a crucial role in uniting southern Italy during the Risorgimento.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist and revolutionary who inspired the Risorgimento (Italian resurgence) through his writings and activism.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian Minister-President and later Chancellor of Germany who used nationalist sentiment and realpolitik, including strategic wars, to achieve German unification.

José Rizal

Filipino intellectual, reformer, and nationalist who advocated for greater autonomy for the Philippines. His execution by the Spanish spurred the Philippine Revolution.

Lola Rodríguez de Tió

Puerto Rican poet and activist who advocated for Puerto Rican independence and social justice.

Theodor Herzl

Austro-Hungarian journalist and the founder of modern Zionism, advocating for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

H.G. Wells

English writer and prominent member of the Fabian Society.

Virginia Woolf

English writer and member of the Fabian Society, known for her modernist novels and essays on feminist topics.

George Bernard Shaw

Irish playwright and prominent member of the Fabian Society, known for his socialist views and satirical plays.

The Enlightenment

A pivotal intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of tradition and authority.

Rationalism and Empiricism

The Enlightenment championed reason as the primary source of knowledge and emphasized empirical observation and experimentation.

Individualism

Enlightenment thinkers posited that the individual human was the most fundamental element of society, prioritizing individual progress and expression over collective groups.

Natural Rights

The concept of inherent rights that governments could not infringe upon, central to Enlightenment thought, influenced by John Locke's ideas of 'life, liberty, and property.'

Social Contract

The theory that governments were formed by the consent of the governed, and if a government failed to protect natural rights, the people had the right to revolt.

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that the ultimate right to rule resides in the people, challenging traditional hierarchies.

Separation of Powers

The principle advocated by Baron de Montesquieu to divide governmental power into different branches to prevent tyranny.

Laissez-faire Economics

Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations, advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy, believing that the 'invisible hand' of the market would guide economic activity for the benefit of society.

Deism

A popular belief among Enlightenment thinkers that God created the universe and established natural laws but no longer actively intervened in human affairs.

Atheism

A complete rejection of religious belief and the notion of a divine being.

Feminism

Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional patriarchal views. Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women's rights and equal opportunities, advocating for suffrage, individual rights, and opportunities for women in society.

Abolitionism

The emphasis on natural rights and the inherent equality of all individuals contributed to the movement to end slavery and the Atlantic slave trade.

Classical Liberalism

This ideology emphasized natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced government spending.

Nationalism

A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory.

Shared Identity

Nationalism fostered a sense of unity based on common cultural markers such as language, folk traditions, shared history, and religion.

Desire for Self-Determination

A central tenet of nationalism was the aspiration for a people to govern themselves in their own nation-state.

Influence of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment's emphasis on popular sovereignty and the idea of a people's right to determine their own destiny provided an ideological basis for nationalism.

Revolutions for Independence

Nationalism was a key driving force behind numerous revolutions against imperial powers, such as the American Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American Revolutions.

Unification Movements

Nationalism played a crucial role in the unification of fragmented territories into single nation-states, most notably in Italy and Germany.

Balkan Nationalism

The decline of the Ottoman Empire created space for the development of nationalism among various ethnic groups in the Balkans.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An Enlightenment thinker who argued for women's rights and equal opportunities, as seen in her Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

José Rizal

His execution helped spur the first nationalist movement in the Philippines with the organization and strength to truly challenge Spanish rule.

Count di Cavour

A military leader who inspired the population to unify Italy under a single government.

Otto von Bismarck

A military leader who inspired the population to unify Germany under a single government.

The Haitian Revolution

The first and only effective slave rebellion.

Bolívar's fight

To recover the rights to which the Creator and Nature have entitled them.

The Enlightenment

A period that led to a questioning of the role of religion in public life and the development of new ways of relating to the divine.

Nationalism

A strong sense of loyalty and devotion to a nation, often based on shared culture, language, history, and a desire for self-determination and a unified state.

Enlightenment

An influential intellectual and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, skepticism, and the importance of human rights.

Social Contract

A philosophical concept describing an implicit agreement among individuals to form a government and abide by its rules, in exchange for the protection of their rights and the maintenance of social order.

Natural Rights

Fundamental rights believed to be inherent to all individuals by virtue of their humanity, often cited as life, liberty, and property (Locke) or the pursuit of happiness (Jefferson).

Laissez-faire

An economic policy advocating minimal government intervention in the free market, allowing businesses and individuals to operate with little regulation.

Deism

A religious belief that posits the existence of a creator God who designed the universe and set its natural laws in motion but does not actively interfere in its ongoing affairs.