UNIT 4 WORLD CIV EXAM

Muhammad

Was a part of the ruling family of Mecca, although his branch of the family was not in power. Has visions of visits from the archangel Gabriel revealing religious truths different from other contemporary teachings. Shares his visions with his family, and soon has a group of converts following him. The authorities in Mecca grow fearful of his growing influence, and he is forced to flee to Medina. He arrives in Medina amidst unrest, with disputing parties looking for someone to arbitrate disputes. He fills this role and gains a reputation for wisdom, ultimately becoming the ruler of the city. After banishing the Jewish inhabitants of Medina, he confiscated their wealth and distributed it among his followers. He then begins extending his power to neighboring communities and cities that fall under his control, including Mecca.

Mecca

Important city in Islam faith. Muslims take pilgrimages there once in their lifetime. Muhammad lived there for a while.

Muhammad

Was a part of the ruling family of Mecca, although his branch of the family was not in power. Has visions of visits from the archangel Gabriel revealing religious truths different from other contemporary teachings. Shares his visions with his family, and soon has a group of converts following him. The authorities in Mecca grow fearful of his growing influence, and he is forced to flee to Medina. He arrives in Medina amidst unrest, with disputing parties looking for someone to arbitrate disputes. He fills this role and gains a reputation for wisdom, ultimately becoming the ruler of the city. After banishing the Jewish inhabitants of Medina, he confiscated their wealth and distributed it among his followers. He then begins extending his power to neighboring communities and cities that fall under his control, including Mecca.

Mecca

Important city in Islam faith. Muslims take pilgrimages there once in their lifetime. Muhammad lived there for a while.

Hijra

Muhammad’s escape from Mecca to Medina.

Kabah

a religious site in Islam. By sanctifying the rock inside the Ka’bah, Muhammad is replacing the pagan center of Arab belief with a monotheistic Islamic belief.

Islam

Religion founded by Muhammad, it incorporates various aspects of the Judeo-Christian tradition. The teachings of Muhammad are recorded in the holy book, the Quran, written after his death by several of his followers. Some of the writings in the Quran revisit or revise aspects of the Old Testament and New Testament. The Quran accepts Jesus as a messiah, but not as the son of God (Allah). The Quran also includes social conventions, such as the correct form of behavior, that allude to the Judeo-Christian and pre-Islamic Arab traditions. There are also militaristic aspects of the Quran, understandable given that at the time of its writing, the practitioners of Islam were surrounded by enemy states. There are five pillars of the Islamic faith. All good Muslims are expected to do the following. 

Muslim

is one who has submitted (one who practices the faith)

Qu’ran

includes social conventions, such as the correct form of behavior, that allude to the Judeo-Christian and pre-Islamic Arab traditions. There are also militaristic aspects, understandable given that at the time of its writing, the practitioners of Islam were surrounded by enemy states. Accepts Jesus as a Messiah, but not as the son of God.

Allah

the term used in Islam to reference God, but this is the same god as worshipped in Judaism and Christianity

Abu Bakr

Muhammad’s father-in-law, the first of Muhammad’s successors as caliph. While only caliph for 2 years, he was successful as keeping the various tribes in Arabia under Muslim control and wins a civil war that arises from infighting amongst different Muslim clans.

Umar

Also a father-in-law of Muhammad, he replaces Abu Bakr as the second caliph. He spreads Islam through what is today the middle east. He conquers the fertile crescent, along with Sassanid and Byzantine areas.

Uthman

The 3rd caliph. Most notable achievement is that he commissions the writing of the Quran, the Islamic holy book that chronicles Muhammad’s revelations. He appoints deputies based on their family relationship to him; rivals that fear such appointments will lead to a caliphate dynasty assassinating him. Followed by Ali.

Ali

Son-in-law and an important deputy to Muhammad, but passed over in the first 3 caliphs elections on the belief he is too young to lead. When he fails to go after the murderers of Uthman, a civil war within Islam occurs. The Umayyads, the family to which Uthman belonged, rebel against Ali.

Muawiya

the Umayyad governor of Damascus who leads the civil war against Ali and replaced Ali as caliph.

Mamluk

Slaves who converted to Islam and trained as professional soldiers who would serve as part of a private army for caliphs. They ultimately gain enough power that Abbasid caliphs must grant their wishes or the caliph would lose his own power (or life).

Dhimmis

Jews, Chrisitians, and Zoroastrians tolerated by the Muslim political authority in exchange for tax payments

jizya

Wealth tax on non-Muslims in Muslim controlled territories.

Kharaj

Land tax on non- Muslims in Muslim controlled territories.

Sunni

A Branch of Islam that believes the caliph could be any Muslim who followed the five pillars

Shi’ite

A Branch of Islam that belived the Caliph could only be blood related to Muhammad.

Abd al-Malik

Under him, Muslims replace the dhimmi as the political leaders of newly conquered areas and the religion grows (noticeable in things like the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem).

Caliph

A political leader or spiritual leader of the Muslim community, the secular head of a religiously defined community. Means “gods deputy”

Umayyads

Comes into power after Ali’s death. The move of the political capital to Damascus exposes the caliphate to Greco-Roman influence. Under Abd-al-Malik, Muslims replace the dhimmi as the political leaders of newly conquered areas and the religion grows. The Umayyad Caliphate attacked Cosntantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, twice during this period. The Romans hold back the invasions by using “Greek Fire”. The Umayyad Caliphate changes the landscape of some cities, building sacred Islamic sites on top of the sacred sites of other religions. This shows a changing nature in relations between muslim rulers and their non-religious subjects. A group of people felt that they were becoming more focused on wealth and power. Accused of nepotism. They fell out of power after that.

Greek Fire

The Romans hold back the invasions by the use of this, an incendiary device that was not extinguishable by water. Eventually goes away because it was such a secret that the Romans and Byzantines forgot how to make it.

Al Mansur

Topples the Umayyads. He is a Abbasid leader. Creates the city of Baghdad.

Abbasids

Islam gains additional converts in new territories they conquer. As a result, a hierarchy within the religion develops based on when one’s family converted. Descendants of those who followed Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina and descendants of conquers receive privileges (like pensions) denied to recent converts. This produces opposition to the Umayyad Caliphate, and a rebellion ensues. The Umayyads are toppled by the Abbasids under Al Mansur.

Vizier

A bureaucratic official who administers for the caliph. A political position.

Imam

Title given to one with religious authority.

Ulama

are religious scholars who decide interpretations of Sharia law (The law based on Islamic principles and the Quran.)

Harun al-Rashid

A skilled diplomat and general, this vizier was known to dress up as a commoner and walk about the city to observe his subjects. Responsible for creating the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. The House of Wisdom was in fame, status, scope, size, resources, patronage, etc. Similar to that of present day British Library in London or the Nationale Bibliotheque in Paris, in addition to being an Academy for the Arts and the sciences where scholars came together for dialogue, discussions, and discourses.

Al Mumun

Son of Harun al-Rashid, he tries to give the office of caliph religious power. He declares himself an imam and orders an inquisition forcing others to admit to his religious primacy. This results in the ‘ulama asserting their right to interpret the Quran and to define the religious law, Shari’a. The idea of a caliph as religious leader does not last long.

Fatimids

The Fatimids in North Africa claimed descent from Ali and his wife Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad. By the end of the 960s they seized Egypt, built Cairo as their new capital, and pressed on to Palestine, Syria, and parts of Arabia. Cairo will become a center of intellectual growth and commercial trade. This is a period of triumph for the Shi’ites.

Cairo

The Fatimids built this as their new capitol. Will become a center of intellectual growth and commercial trade.

Ghaznavids

The Turks also set up new caliphates arising from mamluks who rose through the military ranks. One group ruled part of present-day Afghanistan and Iran. They retain some elements of Persian culture. They are also responsible for the spread of Islam into India, which does not go well initially. The Caliph Mahmoud led an army into India to Somnath, the Hindu holy temple. Hindu is an effront to Muslims because of its idolatry. 50,000 Hindus die defending the temple, touching off 1,000 years of hatred between the Hindu’s and the Muslims.

Saljuqids

They defeated the Ghaznawids and other local powers and in the 1050s became the new protectors of the Abbasid caliph. The Saljuqid Turks also constitute the first major influx of nomads into the Islamic East, causing friction with the settled populations (nomads and their herds vs. farmers and their fields). Atabegs began to overthrow their sultans and masters.

Tughral

Created the position of sultan. Caliph of the Abbasids.

Sultan

Derived from the Arabic word for power, the title was deemed  superior to malik (king) or amir (prince).

Mongols

Hulegu

He was the grandson of the great Ghengis Khan. He was given the task of expanding the Mongol empire into southwest Asia in 1251, by his brother Mongke, who was the Great Khan at the time. It was said that 2 out of every 10 soldiers in the empire were assigned to Hulegu's army.

Il-Khans

Oljeytu

Ghazan

Mamluk Dynasty

Justinian

To erase the memory of the Nika Revolt, Justinian tried to recover Western Roman Empire lands lost to the Arian Christian Ostrogoths and Vandals. He largely succeeded through 20 years of warfare, but could not maintain his victories. The wars were expensive, as were the terms of treaties that bought off some enemies. In addition, a plague spread throughout most of the Eastern Roman Empire territories in the west. As a result of the wars and plagues, the Eastern Roman Empire was bankrupted and weakened.

Theodora

Nika Revolt

Justinians code

Emperor Justinian chose ten men to review 1,600 books full of Roman Law(Twelve Tables) and create a simpler law code. These men were able to create the Justinian Code with just over 4,000 laws. The laws were recorded in four books. Many of the laws in Justinian’s Code reflect the point of view of his wife, Theodora.

Exarchates

Military headquarters outside the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, such as those in Ravenna and Carthage.

Lombards

They invade the weakened Western Roman Empire. They are Arian Christians. They initially conflict with various popes and bishops from Orthodox Christianity until a queen finally converts them all to Orthodox Christianity.

Caesaropapism

The state defining church policy, the emperor acting as the church/pope.

Iconoclasm

The breaking and destruction of icons. Deepens the split between East and West. Put into effect by Pope Leo and his son Constantine the 5th.

Irene

She starts off as a regent for her underage son, eventually killing her son to remain on the throne. She formally announces that iconoclasm is heresy which gains her support from religious people. She also tried to become closer with Charlemagne, who closely supported the pope. She is eventually sent into exile but is considered a saint by the Christians.

St. Benedict

The idea of work and pray. Created the benedictine rules. He spreads the Christian faith through his monasteries.

Benedictine Rules

Created by Saint Benedict. They were created to guide monks in their journey to become self sufficient. These rules dictated the daily activities of the monks down to the hour.

Ora et Labora

The idea of work and pray in monasteries, made up by Saint Benedict.

Pope Gregory

Is known for changing Christian beliefs and ideas to be able to convert pagan people to Christians. Also known for sending missionaries out to convert people and he built a lot of monasteries. Created Christmas.

St. Patrick

He is an example of trying to spread the Christian faith and trying to convert the pagans. Went to Ireland to try to convert them.

Monasticism

The idea of monks (holy men living in monasteries. Monasteries are generally in isolated places where monks can focus on things like fasting and prayer without distractions. Monks produce many religious written works during this period (literacy is uncommon, but monasteries provide monks with access to education).

Book of Kells

An example of the religious texts produced in monasteries, the Book of Kells contains part of the Christian Gospels with elaborately ornate illustrations.

Theudelinda

A Lombard queen who convinces her husband to convert to orthodox Christianity. From this point on the Lombards follow Orthodox Christianity.

Councils of Toledo

Powerful church councils from Toledo (capital of the Visigoths) with strong influence over Visigoth government and society, including nominating Visigoth kings. They pass measures that oppress non Christian communities.

Franks

Visigoths

They were another Arian Christian “barbarian” group located in present day Spain. In 586, a Visigoth emperor, Reccaredm, converted to Orthodox Christianity.

Clovis the 1st

King of the Franks. He united several Frankish tribes around Gaul. Led the Merovingians

Merovingian

Mayor of the Palace

Charles Martel

A Mayor of the palace who led the Franks to a victory over Muslim invasions of Spain at the battle of Tours. He used this victory to become more powerful than the actual Merovingian king. He was a Carolingian, and the victory at Torus gave the Carolingians great prestige.

Tours

Pepin the Short

He was a son of Charles Martel and also a mayor of the palace. He gets the pope to declare him as the new king, thereby replacing the Merovingian dynasty’s control of the Frnaks to Carolingian control of the Franks.

Papal States

Created by Pepin. Land territories under the direct administrative control of the Orthodox Christian Church and the Pope.

Charlemagne

Considered a model of kingships in this era. As the protector of the Church, he is the champion of Christendom. He conquers the Saxons (and forces them to become Christians) to expand his empire. He also leads armies into Spain to protect Christianity from the Muslim Umayyads.

Pope Leo the 3rd

Eastern Roman Emperor who also took control of the church. He practiced and created iconoclasm and declared the worshiping of these “fake” idols to be heresy. he condemns them.

Carolingians

Missi Dominici

Lord’s emissaries, lord meaning king. They were two officials working together, one secular member and one member of the clergy( a layman and a bishop), who inspected the work of dukes and counts

Counts

Administrative officials in charge of cities, with limited control of municipal territories, and administer royal justice.

Dukes

administrative officials similar to countries, but in charge of larger geographic areas (more authority than the counts).

Gavelkind

The division of property equally amongst the children of the dead parent.

Louis the Pious

Treaty of Verdun

Divides the Frankish controlled kingdoms into three territories. West Frankish Kingdom go to Charles the Bald( modern day France), Lothar gets modern day Italy and other territories, and Louis 1 gets modern day Germany. This division shows the beginning of Modern European states such as Italy, Germany, and France.

Vikings

Siege of Paris 845

Siege of Paris 885-886

Feudalism

Form of government by which political authority was exercised by the landed nobility. This dominated most of Europe as the land system.

Fief

A piece of land granted by the king or lord, to somebody in return for service. A fief could be awarded for a variety of reasons to a variety of people. The person who gives the land is called the Lord. It was possible to be both a lord and a vassal!

Manorialism

Agricultural organization of Europe’s landed estates, called manors, which became the major economic and social institution of the Middle Ages. Primary economic system of the Middle Ages.

Vassal

Person who received the grant of land. Gave a pledge of loyalty and an act of homage in a very formalized ceremony called investiture. Vassal was given land to govern and use but not own. Symbolic object, usually a piece of sod, was given during the ceremony.

Knight

Heavy cavalry, preferred military units in Europe

Castles

They existed for protection purposes

3 field system

Allows for more food to grow during the year, since crops are rotated 3 ways instead. This helps grow the population.

Burgh

A town, where the people who live in burghs are called burghers.

Burgher

Townspeople. “Burgh” is a Saxon word meaning “fortified settlement” and those who live in Burghs are Burghers. Townspeople were subject to more liberties than agrarian people, but townspeople are still the minority of the population.

Otto the Great

Also known as Otto the Great, First emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He raised a great army, defeated the Magyars, and then invaded Italy. He fused the German and Italian territories together to create the Holy Roman Empire. He was crowned by the pope.

Otto the 3rd

German king who spread the primacy of the Holy Roman Empire. Spread German influence and Christianity. Conquered Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary.

Lay investiture

Clergy are rewarded for their cooperation with the kings; in exchange, kings appoint appoint some bishops rather than clergy appointing bishops.

Cluny Reforms

They oppose secular or government influence on the church, such as kings appointing church officials. The Reforms are initially supported by Emperor Henry the 3rd, and Pope Leo the 9th.

Great Schism

A large disagreement develops in the church. Some clergy challenge the authority of the Pope over the Cluny Reforms. Some kings want to continue appointing church officials.

Henry the 4th

Used his influence on the church as a weapon against his opponents. He was later excommunicated by Pope Gregory the 7th for interfering in church affairs. So, the German bishops controlled by this person declare the pope illegitimate. This split signals the beginning of ongoing civil wars and conflicts that undermine the power of the German monarchy

Henry the 5th

The concordat of Worms was created during his rule.

Pope Gregory 7th

Goes against Henry the 4th. He strongly supports the Cluny Reforms and excommunicates Henry the 4th.

Concordat of Worms

An agreement that church clergy will elect church bishops freely, but in the physical view of the emperor. Bishops will receive symbolic possessions of their office from other church officials; bishops receive feudal possession directly from the emperor. This way, the powers of becoming bishop are kept in separate spheres.

Crusades

The Crusades are the equivalent of a holy war. The pope can declare this, and so can the King.