Exam 1 - National Govt

Public Good, government function

Three Branches of US Government

Article 1 - legislative. Article 2 - Executive. Article 3 - Judicial

Legislative Branch

The part of the US government responsible for making laws, consisting of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Executive Branch

Responsible for enforcing laws and conducting government operations, led by the President.

Judicial Branch

The part of the US government responsible for interpreting laws and administering justice, consisting of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts.

Democracy etymology

The term "democracy" originates from the Greek words "demos" meaning people and "kratos" meaning power or rule. It signifies a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives.

Direct Democracy

A form of democracy in which people directly participate in decision-making and the creation of laws, rather than through elected representatives. example: state ballots/propositions, referendums

indirect democracy/representative democracy

citizens elect officials to make laws and make decisions on their behalf

other forms of government

Monarchy: a form of government where a single person, known as the monarch (such as a king or queen), serves as the head of state for life or until abdication. Most American colonists came from countries with this system of government

Oligarchy: A system of government in which a small, powerful group of individuals—such as the wealthy, nobility, or military elites—holds all the control, often using it for self-serving interests.

Communism: An economic and political system where the community or state owns all property and resources, aiming to eliminate social classes and ensure wealth is shared equally among all citizens.

classical liberalism

A Western European political philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, individual rights, private property, free markets, and limited government power, developed partly in opposition to feudal and monarchical authority.

Classical republicanism

A political philosophy that emphasizes civic virtue, the public good over individual self-interest, representative government, separation of powers, and checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

difference between classical liberalism and republicanism

Classical liberalism prioritizes individual freedom, rights, and self-interest, while classical republicanism prioritizes civic virtue and the public good, with citizens expected to put the interests of society above their own. Both support limits on government power, but republicanism emphasizes representative government and civic participation.

civic virtue

The willingness of citizens and leaders to put the public good and interests of society above their own private interests, participate responsibly in government, and act in ways that benefit the community.

constitution 1797

The Preamble, 7 Articles, and 27 Amendments. Made to establish a stronger national government, replace the weak Articles of Confederation, protect individual rights and liberties, and create a system of government with separation of powers and checks and balances to prevent abuses of power.

Created partly as a reaction to the abuses of King George III and the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Included equal representation for states in the Senate, proportional representation in the House, and the Three-Fifths Compromise. Slavery was not abolished and was protected through several constitutional compromises.

constitutional democracy

A system of government based on the rule of law, natural law, and natural rights, in which government power is limited by a constitution and individual rights are protected.

Rule of Law + Natural Law + Natural Rights = Constitutional Democracy.

public good

A resource or service that benefits the public as a whole, cannot easily be withheld from individuals, and can be used by many people without being depleted. Governments provide public goods because they may not be produced sufficiently through private markets. Examples include national defense, public safety, and clean air.

three founding documents

1. Declaration of Independence (included grievances against King George III)

2. Constitution

3. Bill of Rights (First ten amendments)

Federalism

A system of government in which power is shared between the national and state governments. For example, both levels of government have roles in conducting elections.

Etymology of Federalism

From the Latin foedus, meaning “treaty,” “covenant,” or “agreement.” Federalism refers to a system in which governments are bound together through an agreement to share power.

Layer Cake Federalism/Dual Federalism

A system where national and state governments have clearly defined, separate areas of authority, with limited overlap between them

Marble Cake Federalism/Cooperative Federalism

A system where national and state governments share and overlap responsibilities, working together to govern and implement policies.

New Federalism

1970s–1980s; Nixon → Reagan; an effort to decentralize government by returning power and funding from the federal government to states and localities, often through block grants and revenue sharing.

shift toward dual federalism → more power to states, less federal control. But States didnt have as much power as in the original system of dual federalism

Antifederalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared that the new national government would become too powerful at the expense of the states and individual liberties. They wanted stronger state governments, greater protections for individual rights, and a Bill of Rights. Their concerns helped lead to the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1791.

Federalists

Supporters of the U.S. Constitution who favored a stronger national government to replace the weak Articles of Confederation. They argued that a stronger federal government was necessary to maintain national unity, provide security, regulate commerce, and address problems that states could not solve individually. Major Federalists included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, who wrote The Federalist Papers to support ratification.

Connecticut Compromise/Great Compromise

Sherman’s plan that created a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in the House of Representatives and equal representation for each state in the Senate. The House would handle legislation involving raising and spending money, while each state would have two senators, originally chosen by the state legislature.

Three Fifths Compromise

A compromise that counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining representation in the House of Representatives. This allowed slaveholding states to gain additional representation and political power based on their enslaved populations, even though enslaved people could not vote or elect those representatives.

Enumerated Powers

The specific powers explicitly listed in the Constitution and granted to the federal government, particularly to Congress in Article I, Section 8. Examples include the power to tax, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, coin money, declare war, and raise and support armies.

Necessary and Proper Clause/Elastic Clause

A provision in Article I, Section 8 that gives Congress the power to make laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers and other constitutional powers. It is also known as the Elastic Clause because it allows federal power to extend beyond the powers specifically listed.

Devolution

The transfer of power and responsibilities from the federal government to state and local governments, representing a movement toward greater decentralization in federalism.

Decentralization → more state power → less federal control → closer to dual federalism

Civil liberties

Individual freedoms protected from government interference, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process.

FREEDOM → “Leave me alone.”

Civil

Protections that ensure equal treatment under the law and prevent discrimination, such as equal protection and voting rights.

EQUALITY → “Treat me equally.”

Civil Liberties Vs. Civil Rights

Civil liberties protect individual freedoms from government interference, while civil rights involve government action to ensure equal treatment and prevent discrimination.

Establishment Clause

The part of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing, officially supporting, or favoring a religion. It is part of the protection of freedom of religion.

Free Exercise Clause

The part of the First Amendment that protects people’s right to practice and express their religious beliefs without government prohibiting the free exercise of religion.

Separation of Church and State

The principle that government and religious institutions should remain separate, meaning the government cannot establish an official religion or favor one religion over another, while individuals remain free to practice their religion.

Protected Classes

De jure vs. De facto Segregation

Groups of people who are legally protected from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, color, religion, sx, national origin, age, disability, or genetic information.

Civil Rights Cases of 1883

A group of Supreme Court cases in which the Court struck down key parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, ruling that the 14th Amendment restricted state action, not discrimination by private individuals or businesses. This limited Congress’s power to prohibit private racial discrimination under the 14th Amendment.

14th Amendment applies to government discrimination, NOT private discrimination.

decision weakened federal protection against racial discrimination in privately owned public accommodations until later civil-rights legislation.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A major federal law that prohibited discrimination and segregation based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin in areas including public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs. It also strengthened enforcement of voting rights and school desegregation. Title VII created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment-discrimination protections.

Connection between Civil rights cases (1883) and Civil rights Act (1964)

Civil Rights Cases (1883) → limited federal power over private discrimination.
Civil Rights Act (1964) → Congress later enacted broad federal protections against discrimination in public accommodations and employment.

Affirmative Action

policies intended to promote equal opportunity for historically disadvantaged groups.

Brown v. Board of Education 1954

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional because “separate” educational facilities are inherently unequal and violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. It overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson principle of “separate but equal” in public education

Emancipation Proclamation

n executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declaring that enslaved people in the Confederate states still in rebellion against the Union were free. It was a wartime measure that changed the Civil War’s purpose to include ending slavery and allowed Black men to serve in the Union military.

Inequality of opportunity

A situation in which people do not have equal access to opportunities or resources because of factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, or other circumstances beyond their control.

unequal chances

Inequality of outcome

A situation in which people or groups have different results or levels of success, such as differences in income, wealth, education, or employment, even when they may have had similar opportunities.

unequal results

Plessy v. Furgeson 1896

A Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of “separate but equal,” ruling that segregation did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment as long as facilities were supposedly equal. The decision provided constitutional support for Jim Crow segregation and was later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.