Mussolini

1914-1918

Initially opposed to World War I, Italy entered the war in 1915 after the promises of the Treaty of London. Italy was promised territorial gains including South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Dalmatian coastline, and the Dodecanese Islands.

1919

After the war, Italy received only a portion of its promised rewards (Trentino, South Tyrol, and Istria) through the Treaty of St. Germain. The Dalmatian lands were given to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

Post-WW1 Economic Struggles

Italy faced severe economic hardships after the war, including war debts, unemployment, and inflation.

Mutilated Victory

Many Italians believed that Italy had not been properly rewarded for its role in the war, contributing to widespread resentment and nationalist sentiment.

1920s

Economic struggles and rising social unrest continued, including strikes, worker occupations, and increasing violence between socialists and fascists.

March 1919

Mussolini founded the Fasci di Combattimento, drawing on nationalism and a strong Italian identity, referencing ancient Rome. Initially lacked clear ideology, focusing on anti-socialism and promoting national strength.

November 1919

Mussolini’s electoral failure – the fascists failed to gain significant seats in the parliamentary elections, securing no seats.

1919-1921

Red Two Years (Biennio Rosso) – A period of industrial unrest and strikes, partly inspired by the Russian Revolution. Mussolini positioned fascism as a protector of order, opposing socialist uprisings and promoting nationalism.

1921

Mussolini’s fascist movement gained 38 seats in the Italian Parliament, marking a step forward in political legitimacy.

November 1921

Formation of the National Fascist Party (PNF), marking a shift to more political organization and ideology, promoting order, discipline, and national expansion.

1922

March on Rome – Fascist militias (30,000-50,000 men) mobilized, using the threat of violence to force King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister. Mussolini officially became the PM in October 1922, taking office without an armed coup, though it was a result of military threat.

1922-1923

Coercion and intimidation – Mussolini secured extraordinary powers from King Victor Emmanuel III, enabling significant changes to consolidate his power.

1923

The Acerbo Law passed, giving two-thirds of the seats in Parliament to the party with the most votes (if they received at least 25%). This helped ensure a fascist majority in Parliament.

1924

1924 Elections – Mussolini’s party won 65% of the vote, solidifying his political legitimacy.

1924

Matteoti’s Murder – The kidnapping and killing of Socialist leader Giacomo Matteoti by fascist thugs created a political crisis, leading to the Aventine Secession (opposition withdrawal from Parliament).

1925

Mussolini responded by increasing political repression, banning opposition parties, strengthening censorship, and creating the secret police OVRA to monitor and suppress anti-fascist activity.

1926

Formation of the MVSN (Fascist Militia) – Mussolini reduced the Blackshirts’ independence by putting them under direct control, swearing loyalty to him, not the King.

1928

Electoral Reform – The fascist regime enacted reforms that limited the number of candidates, ensuring fascists controlled the electoral system.

1928

Mussolini created the Fascist Grand Council, which became increasingly powerful, rivaling the official cabinet.

1923

Corfu Incident – Mussolini used the assassination of an Italian official in Greece as a pretext to bomb the Greek island of Corfu, demonstrating decisiveness in foreign affairs.

1929

Lateran Accords – Mussolini reached an agreement with the Catholic Church, solidifying his control over Italy while securing support from the Church, particularly among the middle and upper classes.

1922-1924/5

Mussolini’s government initially pursued liberal economic policies, aimed at reducing government intervention and allowing market forces to shape the economy. However, state interventionism increased by 1925.

1924

The Battle for the South began, aiming to address the poverty in southern Italy through urbanization and land redistribution, though it largely failed to achieve substantial results.

1925

Battle for Grain – Mussolini aimed for self-sufficiency in grain production, leading to a shift toward wheat farming. By 1931, Italy achieved self-sufficiency in wheat, but mechanization was limited.

1926

Battle for Land – To increase available arable land, Mussolini initiated the draining of the Pontine Marshes.

1926

Battle for Lira – Mussolini aimed to stabilize the Italian lira by revaluing it, benefiting imports but harming export industries like car manufacturing.

1927-1939

The Corporate State model was introduced, balancing socialism and capitalism by replacing trade unions with corporations. Strikes were banned, but workers' rights were introduced within the corporations, limiting freedom to negotiate outside the state framework.

1930s

Mussolini’s autarky policies aimed at achieving economic self-sufficiency, a response to the Great Depression. However, Italy’s industrial growth slowed significantly, from 3.8% annually between 1901-1925 to just 0.8% from 1925-1940.

1927

Battle for Births – Mussolini encouraged population growth to support military expansion, offering incentives like marriage loans, tax breaks for large families, and making divorce illegal. Despite efforts, the population growth did not reach expected levels.

1930s

Women's roles were increasingly confined to traditional domestic duties, and their participation in the workforce was restricted.

1933

A 10% limit on women in state jobs was imposed,

1938

Private companies followed suit of imposing 10% limit on women when it comes to jobs

1930s

Fascist Women’s Organizations (Fasci Femminili) were created to support Mussolini’s policies but discouraged political activism for women.

1938

Anti-Semitic policies were introduced, marking a shift in Mussolini’s regime, with the Manifesto of Italian Race excluding Jews from public life and professions. Jews faced severe restrictions, and anti-Semitism became official state policy.

1920s-1930s

Mussolini sought to control education as a means of indoctrinating youth, focusing on patriotism and obedience.

1931

All teacher associations merged into Fascist one + membership in it compulsory from 1937

1935

Mussolini’s regime introduced compulsory membership in youth organizations like Opera Nazionale Balilla, a fascist group for youth aged 6-18, promoting fascist values.

1930s

Despite efforts, an estimated 40% of Italian youth (8-18) avoided membership in these organizations.

1930s

Increased attempt to control education + education became a tool for indoctrination

1929

All teachers began to be forced take oath of loyalty