people and councils

Religion

Erasmus

Produced critical edition of Greek New Testament – influential for Luther – translated from Greek to Latin.
Criticized Church, wanted reform, opposed violence.

John Calvin

Contrast to Luther, takes Lutheranism a step further.
Scripture only, human nature totally corrupt, celibacy is wrong, kill those who disagree (strict).
Predestination

Martin Luther

Feared punishment from God, sought God's favor, never reached standard, hated himself, comfort in extreme piety, distaste for established practices began.
Called out indulgences – 95 Theses debate, explain how selling indulgences is ok/allowed.
Didn’t originally intend to break Church.
People already questioning/concerned, printing press spread theses (Protestant start).
Scripture/faith/grace/Christ alone = attack sacraments, celibacy, consubstantiation.
No free will, Bible alone, individual interpretation, man cannot overcome sin.
German churches support – replace religion (authority) with secular.

St. Francis of Assisi

Born wealthy, longed for crusade, calling from God to identify with poor, commit to lady poverty.
Bishop saw something in him (don’t persecute – Albigensianism suspicion).
Approved mission

Albigensians

Heresy that believed material world was evil, lived in extreme poverty.
Rejected Church authority, sacraments, Christ’s body.
Catholic Church corrupt and part of evil material world.

St. Dominic

Contemporary of Francis – intellectual approach.
Committed to correct Albigensianism.
Authentic life – people trusted, relatable.
Devotion to rosary in work (illiterate population).
Gained reputation of preachers and teachers.

Charlemagne (747–814)

Defender of Christianity and converted conquered people.
Used Church relationship to stabilize empire and act in Church’s best interest.
Roman emperor (800) by Leo III (papal authority/influence, unity).
Most successful Frankish leader.

St. Thomas Aquinas

Joined Dominicans.
Teachings became backbone of Christianity.
Denied existence of contradiction between faith and reason in scholasticism.
Summa Theologica – explained/defended teachings of Church in scholastic method (reason and logic).
Used reason to show faith is reasonable (you can explain why God exists).
Opposition – relied on reason too much (at cost of faith).

4th Crusade

Called by Innocent III.
Sack in Constantinople (Byzantine Empire) instead of traveling to Egypt.
Damaged East/West relationship.

Knights Templar

State in debt to Knights Templar from borrowing money.
Military order came about after Crusades.
Started practice of lending money in Holy Lands – rich.
Clement dismantled Knights Templar and condemned to get money to Philip so Boniface is not condemned.

Machiavelli

Humanism to politics, influenced by Italian power struggle.
Shifts away from classical virtues, ends justify means.
Further reduction of role of religion in society – world becoming more secular, not concerned with what is morally right.

St. Joan of Arc

Called by God, had visions of saints and battles.
French Church confirmed legitimacy (not heretic) – in charge of army and success.
Charles jealous and sent her to battle, kidnapped by English.
Tricked into admitting heresy – burned at stake.

St. Catherine of Siena

Visions of divine life, detached monastic life, lived in world.
Revelation brought deeper understanding of faith teachings.
Served poor/needy, theologians sought guidance, sent to negotiate peace.
Wrote to Rome to get pope back from Avignon.

Jesuits

Society of Jesus, vow of obedience to pope.
Religious order, spread widely, served in all areas of Church life.
Defended and spread Catholic faith through education, missionary work, and loyalty to pope.
Christian society not controlled by secular rulers.

St. Ignatius of Loyola

Founded Jesuits.
Converted to soldier of Christ.
Vow of obedience to God.
Emphasized education, discipline, missionary work, loyalty to pope.
Counter-Reformation.

St. Charles Borromeo

Participant at Trent, bishop of Milan.
Implemented reform in Milan (Trent into practice).
Promoted clergy education and moral discipline.

St. Peter Canisius

German Jesuit that reclaimed Catholicism.
Translations of catechism.
“Apostle of Germany.”

Pope Gregory VII (1079)

Dictatus Papae – clarified role of Church, interested in reform.
Conflict with Henry IV about lay investiture.
Canossa

Henry IV (HRE)

Clashed with Gregory VII.
Appointed bishop in Milan and conflicted with nobility/Church.

Innocent III

Height of papal power/supremacy.
Strict against moral actions of rulers.
Counterbalance of state authority, asserted Church authority.

Pope Alexander VI

Known for corruption, nepotism, worldliness.
Many sons – didn’t live by priest celibacy.

St. Francis Xavier

Jesuit sent to India.
Inculturation – learned native tongue (method of converting).

Elizabeth I

Daughter of Anne, raised Lutheran/Protestant.
People urged Protestant shift – changed rules so she could rule.
Catholics outlawed from England.
Externally Christianity, internally Protestant.

Henry VIII (England)

Broke from Catholic Church when pope refused to annul marriage.
Oath of legitimacy.
Created Church of England from Act of Supremacy – still Catholic (celibacy, transubstantiation, sacraments).
English Reformation.

St. Thomas More

Stood for papal authority and Catholic tradition.
Refused to support Henry’s break from Church.
Executed for treason and seen as martyr.

Galileo

Egotistical – wanted his ideas widely accepted.
Earth around sun (not 100% verified).
Church requested he stay away from theology.
2x inquisitors, conflict with Church/nobles – “suspicion of heresy.”

Voltaire

French philosopher in Enlightenment.
Anti-religious in writings.
Religion created by man.
Anything other than deism is stupid (supreme being on basis of reason), not atheist.
Paved way for French Revolution.
Freedom of speech, religion, separation of church and state.

Philosophes

Intellectuals of 18th-century Enlightenment who applied reason, science, and thinking to society, government, and religion.
Progress, natural rights, deism.
Supported Catholic reform.
Major role in reviving papal authority and moral credibility.
Reunification – East didn’t publish document and didn’t help West.
Movement of wealth, people, knowledge from Byzantium.

Descartes

Start with what we already know and rebuild how we know things.
“I think, therefore I am.”
We can’t know metaphysical truth (but not anti-religious at core).
Reconciled faith and reason but doubted rationalism, influenced Enlightenment thought.
Dualism

Pope Paul III

Counter-Reformation pope.
Approved founding of Jesuits.
Convened Council of Trent to address challenges of Protestant Reformation and reform Church.
Condemned slavery and articulated dignity of Indigenous peoples.
Excommunicated/dealt with Henry VIII.
Negotiated peace between French and English.
Urged nobles to resist Protestant shift.

Pope Boniface VIII

Tried to reform Church with politics.
Arrested Celestine to protect from state.
Replaced Celestine to restore image and authority of papacy.
Made law that Church cannot be taxed.
Document stating everyone is subject to pope.
Arrested – secular authority over Church.

Philip IV (France)

Money is priority.
Threatened Church.
Wanted to erase Boniface’s actions, including documents.
Arrested Boniface and made him suffer – secular authority over Church.
Owed Knights money – killed/burned them as heretics.
Decline in Christian unity – Church can’t remain universal when authorities constantly step in.

Council of Pisa

1409 elected another pope – 3 popes.
Happened trying to resolve Western Schism (Clement VII and Urban VI).

Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431–1449)

Council for heresy – pope used to shift to East/West issues; theology dominated.
Byzantine (East) wanted military assistance.
Temporary reunification – not acknowledged by East (only on paper).
No military alliance – anti-Western sentiment in East.

Council of Constance (1414)

Chaos with Church leadership – 2 popes for 22 years.
Church positions relying on secular leaders – damage to papacy.
Gregory XII stepped down and hosted if acknowledged to be only valid pope.
Validity of council rules established – ended papal schism.
Outlined necessity for strong papacy and central authority.

Council of Trent (1545–63)

Very definitive – affirmed tradition, sacraments, training of clergy, abolished pluralism, addressed indulgences.
Reopened