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Petrology
The study of the origin, occurrence, composition, and classification of rocks, including the history and geologic processes related to rocks.
Rock
An aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids.
Petrogenesis
Deals with the generation and origin of rocks.
Rock Cycle
A model showing the origins, relationships, and processes between rock types and other geologic materials.
Monomineralic Rock
A rock that consists of multiple crystals of a single mineral.
Polymineralic Rock
A rock that consists of multiple types of minerals and/or mineraloids.
Magma
Molten material generated by partial melting of the Earth's mantle and crust, containing liquids, crystals, gases, and rock fragments in varying proportions.
Lava
Magma that reached the surface of the Earth.
Melt
The liquid portion of magma composed mainly of mobile ions of the eight most abundant elements in the Earth's crust.
Volatile
The gaseous component of magma that vaporizes and turns into gas at surface pressures.
Anatexis
The partial melting of a source rock in the Earth's crust, producing a liquid melt fraction enriched in lower temperature constituents and a residual rock enriched in higher temperature, refractory minerals.
Temperature Increase
Increase in temperature to the melting point of minerals and rocks, which may be caused by heat transfer from magma intrusions to the surrounding rocks.
Geothermal Gradient
The increase of temperature with depth, averagely measured at 25°C/km for the upper 10 km, but decreases with depth.
25°
What is the average geothermal gradient for the upper 10 km?
5-10°C
What is the average geothermal gradient for continental lithosphere?
30-50°C
What is the average geothermal gradient at hotspots, ocean spreading ridges, and volcanic arcs?
Pressure Decrease
Decompression or loss of pressure can cause hot, solid mantle rock to rise into regions of lower pressure, causing surrounding rocks to melt and generate magma. Loss of pressure at high temperatures may also permit solid-state materials to liquefy.
Decompression Melting
Also known as adiabatic melting; partial melting resulting from a decrease in pressure.
Volatile-Induced
Melting induced by fluxes that weaken silica bonding in rocks and lower their melting temperature, often occurring in subducting slabs bearing hydrous minerals and fluids from the ocean, migrating onto the hot mantle directly above.
Flux
An agent that can reduce the melting temperature of a substance.
Igneous Rocks
Known as "primary rocks" that originated from solidified magma or lava.
Sedimentary Rocks
Known as "secondary rocks" formed as a result of lithified fragments of preexisting rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks that formed as a result of preexisting rocks undergoing metamorphism due to heat, pressure, and fluids.
Marginal Accretion
Results from crystallization along the walls of the magma chamber in which crystals preferentially form and adhere to the edges.
Roof Accretion
A type of marginal accretion that results from early crystallization of minerals along the ceiling or the roof due to preferential heat loss.
Sidewall Accretion
A type of marginal accretion that develops as the magma chamber walls release heat to the relatively cold country rock, generating crystals that adhere to the side margins of the magma chamber.
Floor Accretion
A type of marginal accretion that occurs as crystals form along the base of the magma chamber.
Gravitational Separation
A series of fractionation processes that occur when crystals develop with significantly different densities than the surrounding magma.
Crystal Settling
A mode of gravitational separation that occurs when higher density, ferromagnesian minerals settle to the base of a magma chamber relative to the lower density liquid magma.
Crystal Flotation
A mode of gravitational separation that occurs when early formed crystals less dense than the magma floats towards the roof of the magma chamber.
Convective Flow Segregation
A fractional crystallization process that occurs where liquids and crystals in a magma are separated due to factors like velocity, density or temperature.
Filter Pressing
A process where a magma chamber squeezes out the more mobile liquid into a new chamber and leaving behind a residue of crystals in the original chamber.
Liquid Fractionation
A process where one magma fractionates to produce two or more distinctly different daughter magmas with different compositions.
Differential Diffusion
Involves the selective diffusion of ions in the magma due to compositional, thermal or density gradients, and water content, that may play a role in the generation of metallic ore deposits in magmatic systems.
Liquid Immiscibility
The separation of magma into two or more distinct immiscible liquid phases.
Assimilation
The reaction that occurs when the intruding magma chemically reacts with the surrounding wall rock, and incorporates xenoliths within the magma.
Xenocrysts
Foreign crystals not generated by crystallization of the surrounding magma.
Stoping
Fracturing of the wall rock due to the forceful injection of the magma.
Stope
Country rock fragments.
Xenoliths
Stopes that fall into the magma.
Magma replenishment
It involves multiple magma injections over time, produces complex relationships and constitutes an important diversification mechanism.
Magma Mingling
Occurs when two or more distinct magmas coexist and interact, but do not combine nor mix.
Magma Mixing
The thorough mixing of two or more magmas, where individual characteristics are no longer recognizable.
Magma Series
Consists of genetically-related magmas with a composition that evolved from a common, original, parental magma.
Harker diagrams
Are bivariate diagrams in which the vertical ordinate (y - axis) represents weight percents of major or minor oxide compounds.
Calc-alkaline magmas
Record a progressive decrease in iron and magnesium with increasing SiO₂ and alkali concentrations due to the early crystallization of ferromagnesian minerals, hence, an enrichment in alkaline minerals. Produce largely andesites, dacites, rhyolites, and high-alumina basalts (BADR).
Tholeiitic magmas
Experience enrichment in iron at low to moderate SiO₂ concentrations with increasing fractionation due to depleted MgO and CaO from early crystallization of forsterite olivine and Ca-plagioclase. Produce large volumes of basalt with little variations in composition.
Alkaline magmas
Magmas that are less common than calc-alkaline or tholeiitic magmas, highly enriched in Na₂O and/or K₂O and contains extremely diverse compositions with SiO₂ contents ranging from 0-65%.
Bimodal magma suites
Characterized by high concentrations of silicic and basic rocks, with little intermediate rocks, and associated with continental rifts. Its basic component is derived from partial melting of the mantle, while its silicic component is derived from the partial melting of the continental crust from the heating of the rising basic magmas.
Calc-alkaline magmas
Record a progressive decrease in iron and magnesium with increasing SiO₂ and alkali concentrations due to the early crystallization of ferromagnesian minerals, hence, an enrichment in alkaline minerals. Produce largely andesites, dacites, rhyolites, and high-alumina basalts (BADR). Dominantly occurs along convergent margin environments with volcanic arcs and subduction zones.
Tholeiitic magmas
What type of magmas dominantly occur in extensional environments such as ocean ridges and continental rifts, and some hotspots in intraplate settings and immature arcs in thin volcanic arc crusts?
Calc-alkaline magmas
What type of magmas dominantly occur almost exclusively along convergent margin environments with volcanic arcs and subduction zones?
Alkaline magmas
What type of magmas occur in a wide variety of environments that include stable cratons, continental rifts, and subduction zones?
Bimodal volcanism
What type of volcanism occur only at continental rifts and hotspots underlying continental lithosphere?
<45%
What is the silica content range for ultramafic magmas?
45-52%
What is the silica content range for mafic magmas?
Fe, Mg, Ca
Which elements are enriched in mafic magmas?
1,000-1,200°C
What is the typical temperature range for mafic magmas?
Fluid (Basaltic)
How would you describe the viscosity of mafic magmas?
52-63%
What is the silica content range for intermediate magmas?
63-68%
What is the silica content range for dacitic magmas?
800-1,000°C
What is the typical temperature range for intermediate magmas?
Viscous
How would you describe the viscosity of intermediate magmas?
68-77%
What is the silica content range for felsic magmas?
K, Na
Which elements are enriched in felsic magmas?
650-800°C
What is the typical temperature range for felsic magmas?
Intrusive Igneous Structures
Plutonic structures that form when magma intrudes, cools, and solidifies beneath preexisting country rocks.
Batholiths
Plutons with an irregular shape that have surface exposures > 100 km².
Stocks
Plutons with an irregular shape that have surface exposures ≤ 100 km².
Concordant Structures
Igneous structures oriented parallel to the preexisting layering in the surrounding country rock.
Sill
A tabular, concordant pluton that is parallel to the country rock that develops through the injection of magma along a plane.
Laccolith
A blister-like, concordant pluton with a flat floor and domed roof.
Lopolith
Dish- to funnel-shaped, concordant plutons resembling a champagne glass.
Veins
Small-scale sills or dikes that can either be concordant or discordant and form when hot fluids flow through fractures, cool, and crystallize.
Vein Swarms
Veins that occur in great abundance and may display random or preferred orientations.
Discordant Structures
Igneous structures that cut across any layering within the country rock.
Neck
Cylindrical dikes exposed at the surface due to subsequent erosion, representing ancient conduit pipes of ancient volcanoes whose summits have long been eroded.
Diatreme
Carrot-shaped, cylindrical pipes that can extend up to 200 km, developed through explosive intrusions originating deep within the mantle.
Kimberlites
Ultramafic, diamond-bearing rocks usually associated with diatremes.
Dike
Tabular intrusions that cut across country rock layers and are typically more resistant to weathering and erosion compared to the country rock.
Dike Swarms
Multiple dikes that are either parallel, sub-parallel, radiating, concentric, or randomly oriented.
Radial Dikes
Multiple, radiating dikes typically produced when the vertical forces of a rising magma fracture the rock in a radiating pattern.
Cone Dikes
Dikes that are nearly vertical in cross-section and circular in plan view.
Ring dikes
These dikes are nearly vertical in cross - section and circular in map view.
Cone Sheet Dikes
Dikes that are circular in plan view but converge at a depth.
En Echelon Dikes
Dike swarms consisting of parallel, offset dikes that form in response to shear.
Parallel Dikes
Set of dikes that are parallel to each other and form perpendicular extension, common in rift environments.
Sheeted Dikes
Steeply inclined set of dikes, composed of gabbro, diabase, and basalt, which form by cooling and contraction of magma as it is injected into extensional fractures in oceanic rift valleys.
Plutons
Are magma chambers of various sizes, shapes and depths that store magma within Earth.
<45%
What is the weight percent silica for ultrabasic rocks?
45-52%
What is the weight percent silica for basic rocks?
52-66%
What is the weight percent silica for intermediate rocks?
66%
What is the weight percent silica for acidic (silicic) rocks?
Ultramafic
Which type of rocks are dark or greenish rocks rich in olivine and may also contain pyroxene or amphibole?
Mafic
Which type of rocks are dark-colored rocks containing pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, and biotite?
Intermediate
Which type of rocks are grayish to salt and pepper-colored and rich in plagioclase, amphibole, and quartz?
Felsic
Which type of rocks are light-colored or red and rich in potassium feldspar, quartz, and biotite or muscovite?
Pegmatitic
Characterized by large crystals averaging more than 30 mm in diameter, display large early formed euhedral crystals surrounded by later formed subhedral crystals, and develop most commonly in granitic plutons with high volatile contents.
Phaneritic
Characterized by crystals with diameters ranging from 1 to 30 mm but is subdivided into three: fine (1 to 3 mm in diameter), which commonly develop in shallow, plutonic dikes and sills; medium (3 to 10 mm in diameter); or coarse (10 to 30 mm in diameter), which are associated with larger or deeper intrusions.
Aphanitic
Textured that contains small crystals less than 1 mm in diameter that are not generally discernible to the naked eye and are associated with volcanic rocks that cool quickly on Earth's surface.