PS Final

less developed countries (LDCs)

"Countries at a relatively low level of economic development."

infrastructure

"Basic structures necessary for social activity, such as transportation and telecommunications networks, and power and water supply." Context: a way that domestic factors can affect development. Can be compared with other government policies like the rule of law and regime type which also are domestic factors that can affect development Example: Transportation, Hospitals, roads, schools, telecommunication networks

primary products

"Raw materials and agricultural products, typically unprocessed or only slightly processed. The primary sectors are distinguished from secondary sectors (industry) and tertiary sectors (services)." Context: a way international trade affects development compared with oligopoly and terms of trade Example: Cocoa, Beans, Maize, Rice, etc.

oligopoly

"A situation in which a market or industry is dominated by a few firms." Context: A way international trade affects development compared with primary products and terms of trade Example: In the video game industry microsoft, sony, and nintendo dominate the market

terms of trade

"The relationship between a country’s export prices and its import prices." Context: A way international trade affects development compared with primary products and oligopoly Example: A developing country such as Gabon’s terms of trade are particularly important in terms of determining how the economy responds to market fluctuations.

import-substituting industrialization (ISI)

"A set of policies, pursued by most developing countries from the 1930s through the 1980s, to reduce imports and encourage domestic manufacturing. often through trade barriers, subsidies to manufacturing, and state ownership of basic industries" Context: During the 1930s to 1980s, developed countries were at war and could not be concerned with the well-being of developing countries. To combat this, developing countries looked inward to spur economic growth without help of developed nations. This can be compared to EOI. did not work well Example: Strategy by Brazil, Argentina in 1960s to spur development.

export-oriented industrialization (EOI)

"A set of policies, originally pursued starting in the late 1960s by several East Asian countries, to spur manufacturing for export, often through subsidies and incentives for export production." Context: During the late 20th century the East Asian Tigers such as China, South Korea rapidly exported technology to spur development in response to developed countries inability to support them. This can be compared to ISI. Worked well Example: China/South Korea rapid development through exports of mass technology

Washington Consensus

"An array of policy recommendations generally advocated by developed-country economists and policymakers starting in the 1980s. including trade liberalization, privatization, openness to foreign investment, and restrictive monetary and fiscal policies." Context: Relates to globalization as it facilitated economic globalization by promoting free markets and financial integration, but also sparked debates on its role in deepening global inequalities. Also relates to LDC’s as they are the ones that implemented these policy recommendations

Group of 77

"A coalition of developing countries in the United Nations, formed in 1964 with 77 members; it has grown to over 130 but retains the original name." Context: After WWII African, Asian, and caribbean countries banded together to create the non-aligned movement, pledging not to ally themselves with the American lead west or Soviet lead east. Eventually these relations gave rise to the group of 77. Relates to other international cooperation organizations like NATO.

commodity cartels

"Associations of producers of commodities that restrict world supply and thereby cause the price of the goods to rise." Context: Relates to globalization by influencing global trade flows, prices, and economic stability through coordinated production and pricing strategies. Relates to LDC’s as they attempted to create commodity cartels to make up for international inequalities Examples: OPEC

Terrorism

"premeditated threat or use of violence against noncombatant targets by individuals or subnational groups to obtain a political or social objective through intimidation of a larger audience." Context: This is a type of way for a nonstate actor to use violence to achieve a political goal. Can be compared to a civil war which is distinguished by its participants not by nature of its targets. Example: 9/11 Attacks

Rationality

purposive behavior or strategies by which individuals or groups pursue their interests. Context: Fits into a broader debate of whether terrorists are rational actors. Terrorists might be seen as irrational because the costs outweigh the benefits, it is irrational to be a suicide bomber, and that some terrorist attacks seem to be random. Example: Al Qaeda bombed Spanish trains in the 1990s with the rational desire of Spanish removal of troops from their land.

Extremists

actors whose interests are not widely shared by others; individuals or groups that are politically weak relative to the demands they make. Fits into the broader context of why someone might become a terrorist. An extremist can be contrasted with a moderate, who lies in the middle of the bell curve of public opinion. ISIS/Hamas

Terrorism From Incomplete Information

Incomplete information is a bargaining barrier between targets and terrorist groups as it is often difficult for targets to gain information. Terrorist organizations have an incentive to misrepresent their capabilities. Fits into the context of terrorism as a bargaining failure. Can be compared to terrorism from commitment problems and terrorism from indivisibility. Terrorist organizations such as ISIS usually use cell networks to ensure they are hidden and give as little away as possible.

Terrorism from Commitment problems

refers to the difficulty in ensuring that both terrorists and their targets can credibly commit to peace agreements, as terrorist groups struggle to control internal factions and disarm, while targets fear that concessions will lead to further demands and encourage new adversaries. Fits into the context of terrorism as a bargaining failure. Can be compared to terrorism from incomplete information and terrorism from indivisibility. Israel-Hamas are unable to come to an agreement due to the fact that Israel is unaware of whether Hamas will truly come to a peaceful conclusion.

Terrorism from Indivisibility problems

Terrorism as an indivisibility problem occurs when the goals of the terrorist group and the target are seen as non negotiable or all-or-nothing, making compromise impossible. Fits into the context of terrorism as a bargaining failure. Can be compared to terrorism from incomplete information and terrorism from commitment problems. Religious Territories such as Jerusalem have caused issues between countries in the Middle East due to its historical significance.

Coercion

a strategy of imposing or threatening to impose costs on other actors in order to induce a change in their behavior. Operates through costly signaling and the threat of future costs. Strategy of violence for terrorists. Can be compared with provocation, spoiling, outbidding. Al Qaeda bombing Spanish buses in the early 2000s to get them to remove troops from Iraq

Provocation

a strategy of terrorist attacks intended to provoke the target government into making a disproportionate response that alienates moderates in the terroristsʼ home society or in other sympathetic audiences Strategy of violence for terrorists. Can be compared with coercion, spoiling, outbidding. US invasion of Iraq caused sympathetic support for Al Qaeda as it was deemed that the US may have hate towards Muslims.

Spoiling

a strategy of terrorist attacks intended to sabotage a prospective peace between the target and moderate leadership from the terroristsʼ home society. Strategy of violence for terrorists. Can be compared with provocation, coercion, outbidding. Hamas spoiling prospective Peace between Israel-Palestine

Outbidding

A strategy of terrorist attacks designed to demonstrate superior capability and commitment relative to other groups devoted to the same cause. Strategy of violence for terrorists. Can be compared with provocation, spoiling, coercion

Deterrence

a strategy to preserve the status quo by threatening challengers with unacceptable costs.

Preemption

Strategy for states to take the initiative and attempt to disrupt or destroy terrorists and their networks before they attack.

Defensive measures

Actions taken by states to prevent terrorist attacks by increasing the costs and difficulty for attackers, such as enhanced security screenings, physical barriers, and fortified structures.

Criminalization

States can criminalize terrorism and pursue specific individuals and groups for the attacks they have planned or carried out.

Victory

terrorist group ceases to exist because they achieved their goals

Transformation

group becomes something else

Repression by the State

State military effort to eliminate the organization

Leadership Removal (Decapitation)

Attacking a group by removing its leader, often done through assassination

Negotiations

Terrorist groups negotiate a compromise with the state

Loss of Popular Support

Terrorist violence turns the public away

comparative advantage

"The ability of a country or firm to produce a particular good or service more efficiently than the other goods or services that it can produce, such that its resources are most efficiently employed in this activity. The comparison is to the efficiency of other economic activities that the actor might undertake, given all the products it can produce—not to the efficiency of other countries or firms."; countries should do what they do best

absolute advantage

"The ability of a country or firm to produce more of a particular good or service than other countries or firms do with the same amount of effort and resources."

Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory

"The theory that a country will export goods that make intensive use of the factors of production in which it is well endowed. For example, a labor-rich country will export goods that make intensive use of labor."

Context: factors of production: land, labor, capital for investment, human capital

Example: Indonesia Textile Industry

protectionism

use of specific measures to shield domestic producers from imports

trade barriers

"Government limitations on the international exchange of goods. Examples include tariffs, quantitative restrictions (quotas), import licenses, requirements that governments buy only domestically produced goods, and health and safety standards that discriminate against foreign goods."

tariff

"A tax imposed on imports. Tariffs raise the domestic price of the imported good and may be applied for the purpose of protecting domestic producers from foreign competition."

quantitative restriction (quota)

"A limit placed on the amount of a particular good that is allowed to be imported."

nontariff barriers to trade

"Obstacles to imports other than tariffs (trade taxes). Examples include restrictions on the number of products that can be imported (quantitative restrictions, or quotas); regulations that favor domestic over imported products; and other measures that discriminate against foreign goods or services."

Stolper-Samuelson theorem

"The theorem that protection benefits the scarce factor of production. This view flows from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory: if a country imports goods that make intensive use of its scarce factor, then limiting imports will help that factor. So in a labor-scarce country, labor benefits from protection and loses from trade liberalization."

Ricardo-Viner (specific-factors) model

"A model of trade relations that emphasizes the sector in which factors of production are employed rather than the nature of the factor itself."

reciprocity

"In international trade relations, a mutual agreement to lower tariffs and other barriers to trade. Involves an implicit or explicit arrangement for one government to exchange trade-policy concessions with another."

most-favored nation (MFN) status

"A status established by most modern trade agreements guaranteeing that the signatories will extend to each other any favorable trading terms offered in agreements with third parties."

World Trade Organization (WTO)

"The most important international institution in commercial relations, which succeeded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO, which opened its doors in 1995, is more structured, more formal, and more encompassing than the GATT, although its goal is very similar: to encourage the expansion of an open international trading system."

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

An international institution created in 1947 in which member countries committed to reduce barriers to trade and to provide similar trading conditions to all other members.

regional trade agreements (RTAs)

"Agreements among three or more countries in a region to reduce barriers to trade among themselves."

Nationalism

"primarily a political principle, which holds that the political and national unit should be congruent. This principle is violated if 1) The political boundary doesnʼt include all members of “the nationˮ 2) The boundary includes the nation but also out-group members; 3) The boundary does both of those things; 4)The boundary doesnʼt exist and “the nationˮ lives in many states

Nation as a Soul

“a soul, a spiritual principle... A nation is a great solidarity, created by the sentiment of the sacrifices which have been made and of those which one is disposed to make in the future.”

Nation as a Political Unit

“an imagined political community

Civic Nationalism

Envisioned as mass, civic, and democratic

Ethnic Nationalism

Envisioned as specific and ethno-linguistic

Globalization

the spread of activities and ideas across the globe; in economics, involves increasing integration of national economies through the movement of goods, services, money, and people across borders

Populism

a broad array of political movements that claim to speak on behalf of “the people,ˮ in opposition to corrupt elites, both domestic and foreign

Left-Wing Populism

emphasizes radical redistribution of wealth, nationalization of property, and anti-imperialism

Right-Wing Populism

nationalism, traditional cultural values, and rejection of foreign influences

human rights

"The rights possessed by all individuals by virtue of being human."

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

"A declaration, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, that defines a 'common standard of achievement for all peoples' and forms the foundation of modern human rights law."

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

"The agreement completed in 1966 and in force from 1976 that details the basic civil and political rights of individuals and nations."

International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

"The agreement completed in 1966 and in force from 1976 that specifies the basic economic, social, and cultural rights of individuals and nations."

International Bill of Rights

"The UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR collectively."

nonderogable rights

"Rights that cannot be suspended for any reason, including at times of public emergency."

prisoners of conscience (POCs)

"Individuals imprisoned solely because of the peaceful expression of their beliefs."

individual petition

"A right that permits individuals to petition appropriate international legal bodies directly if they believe a state has violated their rights."

International Criminal Court (ICC)

"A court of last resort for human rights cases that possesses jurisdiction only if the accused is a national of a state party.

global climate change

"Human-induced change in the environment, especially from the emissions of greenhouse gases, leading to higher temperatures around the globe."

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

"A 1992 international agreement that provided an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts on climate change."

Paris Agreement

"An agreement negotiated under the UNFCCC in 2015 and in force since 2016, that aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions and global temperature increases."

tragedy of the commons

"A problem that occurs when a resource is open to all, without limit."

public goods

"Products that are nonexcludable and nonrival in consumption, such as clean air or water."

common-pool resources

"Goods that are available to everyone, such as open ocean fisheries."

nonexcludable goods

"Goods that, if available to one actor, cannot be denied to others."

nonrival goods

"Goods for which consumption by one actor does not diminish the quantity available to others."

Kyoto Protocol

"An amendment to the UNFCCC, adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005."

Vienna Convention

"A framework convention adopted in 1985 to regulate activities, especially emissions of CFCs, that damage the ozone layer."

Montreal Protocol

"An international treaty, signed in 1989, that is designed to protect the ozone layer."