Quiz and Exam #1- A & P Lecture

List and explain the clinical modes of assessment in anatomy and physiology.

Inspection- observation of surface features

Palpation- touch

Auscultation- listening to internal sounds of the body

Percussion- pocket of fluid or air

Medical imaging- interior of the body without surgery

Define anatomy and physiology, and relate them to each other

Anatomy- study of structure

Physiology- study of function

They are related because structure determines function and function can influence structure

Define a few subdivisions of human physiology

Neurophysiology- how nervous system works

Endocrinology- hormones and glands

Pathophysiology- diseases and how they affect the body

Cytology- cells

List the major historical contributions of scientists (their names and specific discoveries) to anatomy and physiology

Hippocrates- father of medicine, natural cause of disease

Aristotle- complex structures are built from simpler parts

Galen- trust observations (not dogma/books), animals for dissection

Vesalius- father of anatomy, real dissection of human

Harvey- blood circulation

Hooke- compound microscope, first to see cells

Leeuwenhoek- single-lens microscope, observed blood, lake water, sperm, bacteria and called them “little animalcules”

Distinguish the two major types of scientific methods used in anatomy and physiology.  

Inductive method- numerous similar observations in making generalizations & predictions, knowledge of anatomy is obtained this way

Hypothetico-deductive method- asks questions based on observations, hypothesis, knowledge of physiology is gained this way

Describe the hierarchical organization of the human body, from atoms to the entire organism.

Molecules- composed of atoms

Organelles- composed of molecules

Cells- composed of organelles

Tissues- composed of cells

Organs- composed of tissues

Organ systems- composed of organs

Organism- composed of organ systems-collective function, complete individual

Reductionism

Large, complex system can be understood by studying its simpler components

Holism

“Emergent properties” of whole organism cannot be predicted from properties of separate parts, humans are greater than the sum of their parts

Explain important components of a sound experimental design

Sample size- # of subjects in a study increases confidence

Controls-similar to the experimental group

Psychosomatic effect (placebo)- one’s state of mind on his/her physiology

Double-blind method with placebo-reduces experimenter bias

Peer review-ensures honesty and quality in science

List the characteristics of life present within all living creatures.

Organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, evolution

Evolution

Genetic change from one generation to the next; occurs in populations, not individuals

Adaptations

Physical features/traits that give advantages

Describe some human characteristics that can be attributed to the tree-dwelling habits of primates and upright walking

Color vision

Opposable thumbs-grasp and hold small objects

Define the following anatomical variations among humans and discuss their clinical significance

Situs solitus- normal; baseline for interpreting surgery, image, and physical exams

Situs inversus- organs of thoracic and abdominal cavities are revered between left and right; important for surgeons and radiologists to recognize

Situs perversus- an organ found in abnormal position; can cause functional problems

Define homeostasis and explain its role in the human body’s ability to function.

Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions through detection of change and activation; important because loss of homeostatic control=death

Distinguish between positive and negative feedback systems in human physiology and know which one maintains homeostasis.

Negative feedback- keeps a variable close to its set point, ex: vasodilation and vasoconstriction, maintains homeostasis

Positive feedback- greater change in the same direction, produces more change, ex: childbirth, blood clotting

Frontal plane

Anterior and posterior

Transverse plane

Superior and inferior

Sagittal plane

Left and right

Ventral

Toward the front, ex: the aorta is ventral to the vertebral column

Dorsal

Toward the back, ex: the vertebral column is dorsal to the aorta

Anterior

Toward the ventral side, ex: the sternum is anterior to the heart

Posterior

Toward the dorsal side, ex: the esophagus is posterior to the trachea

Cephalic

Toward the head or superior end, ex: the brain develops from the cephalic end of the neural tube

Rostral

Toward the forehead or nose, ex: the forebrain is rostral to the brainstem

Caudal

Toward the tail or inferior end, ex: the spinal cord is caudal to the brain

Superior

Above, ex: the heart is superior to the diaphragm

Inferior

Below, ex: the liver is inferior to the diaphragm

Medial

Toward the median plane, ex: the heart is medial to the lungs

Lateral

Away from the median plane, ex: the eyes are lateral to the nose

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or origin, ex: The elbow is proximal to the wrist

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment or origin, ex: the fingers are distal to the elbow

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body (right or left), ex: the liver is ipsilateral to the appendix

Contralateral

On opposite sides of the body (right or left), ex: the spleen is contralateral to the liver

Superficial

Closer to the body surface, ex: the skin is superficial to the muscles

Deep

Farther from the body surface, ex: the bones are deep to the muscle

List the role of the following inorganic molecules in the body.

Water-

Sodium-

Chloride-

Potassium-

Calcium-

Iron-

Ions

Charged particles w/ unequal number of p+ & e-, have electric charge

Electrolytes

Salts that ionize in water, capable of conducting electric current

Free radicals

Chemical particles w/ odd number of electrons (unpaired electron)

Know what neutralizes free radicals in the body and where they can be found

Antioxidants; Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Carotenoid, Selenium, Lycopene, Anthocyanins

Molecules

Composed of two or more atoms joined by a chemical bond, ex: H2

Compounds

Molecules composed of two or more different elements, ex: H20

Define and explain the three main types of chemical bonds

Ionic- attraction of anion to cation

Polar covalent- electrons shared equally

Non-polar covalent- electrons shared unequally

Hydrogen- weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen or fluorine atom in another

Rank the 3 main types of chemical bonds in terms of bond strength in the body

Give examples of the physiological roles of polar and non-polar bonds in the body 

Explain the different properties of water.

Solvency- ability to dissolve other chemicals

Adhesion- tendency of one substance to cling to another

Cohesion- tendency of like molecules to cling to each other

Chemical reactivity- ability to participate in chemical reactions

Thermal stability- helps stabilize internal temperature of body

Acid

Proton donor (releases H+ ions when it reacts with water)

Base

Proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions; releases OH- ions)

Buffer

Resists changes in pH

Relate the concentration of hydrogen ions to pH

Inversely related; if H+ increases, pH decreases (more acidic), if H+ decreases, pH increases (more basic)

Give physiological examples of pH. 

Hydrochloric acid (stomach), blood, saliva, urine

Give non-physiological examples of pH. 

Vinegar, bleach, ammonia, lemon juice

Predict the effect of changes in pH on biological molecules, particularly in terms of denaturation. 

Name the bonds disrupted by pH changes. 

Hydrogen and ionic

Know the different classes of chemical reactions and what factors affects reaction rates

Decomposition reactions

Large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones, energy is released

Synthesis reactions

Two or more small molecules combine to form larger one, new products are formed, energy is required

Exchange reactions

Two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms

Reversible reactions

Can go either way, the direction is determined by the abundance of substance on each side

What factors affect reaction rates?

Concentration, Temperature, Catalysts, Enzymes

Metabolism

All chemical reactions in the body

Anabolism

Energy-storing synthesis reactions

Catabolism

Energy-releasing decomposition reactions

Oxidation reactions

Molecule gives up electrons, release energy, molecule oxidized in this process, electron acceptor molecule is oxidizing agent

Reduction reactions

Molecule gains electrons, gains energy molecule reduced in this process electron donating molecule is reducing agent

List the four major categories of biological carbon compounds, and the chemical bonding present, and provide examples for each.

Carbohydrates- covalent bond, ex: glucose

Lipids- covalent bond, ex: triglycerides

Proteins- covalent bond, ex: amylase

Nucleic acids- covalent bond, ex: DNA

Different types of lipids:

Trans fatty acids-

Cis fatty acids-

Triglycerides- three fatty acids covalently bonded to glycerol, ex: butter, olive oil

Phospholipids- one fatty acid replaced by phosphate group, ex:

Eicosanoids- hormone-like chemical signals between cells,

Steroids- four-ringed lipids, derived from cholesterol, ex: cortisol, estrogen

Cholesterol- important component of cell membranes, ex:

Different types of carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides- simplest carb, monomer, ex: glucose, fructose

Disaccharides- two monosaccharides, ex: lactose, sucrose

Polysaccharides- long chains of monosaccharides (50+), ex: glycogen, starch

Oligosaccharides- short chains of monosaccharides (3+), ex: FOS, GOS

Explain trans-fat on the nutritional value of foods

They lower the nutritional value of food and make the metabolically harmful

Know the composition and roles of each of the major biological molecules

Glycogen- storage polysaccharide found in human tissues, energy

Starch- energy storage polysaccharide in plants

Cellulose- structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, gives strength of cell wall of plants

Describe protein structures (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) and the general function of proteins

Primary- linear chain of amino acids

Secondary- pattern caused by interaction of nearby aa, hydrogen bond, a helix, b pleated sheet

Tertiary-spatial arrangement of secondary structures proteins

Quaternary- two or more polypetide chains (subunits) folded together

Monomer

small molecule that can react with other molecules to form large/complex molecules

Polymer

molecules made of repetitive series of identical/similar subunits (monomer)

Polymerization

joining monomers to form polymer (macromolecules)

Hydrolysis

splitting polymer (lysis) by adding water molecule (hydro)

Explain the importance of a molecule’s shape to its function. 

Shape determines the function, slight change in shape can lead to loss of function

Explain the role of hydrogen, covalent, and ionic bonding in protein shape. 

Hydrogen- form secondary structure

Covalent- form primary structure

Ionic- stabilize tertiary and quaternary structures

Enzyme

proteins, function as biological catalysts, lowers activation energy

Denaturation

loss of conformation (structure)

Describe the structure and functions of ATP

Body’s most important energy-transfer molecule; adenine (nitrogenous base), ribose (sugar), phosphate groups (3)

Describe the two main types of nucleic acids

DNA- stores our genetic materials as genes, instructions for synthesizing all the body’s protein

RNA- contain instructions for making proteins