Exam 4 Review

problem solving:

the cognitive process of moving from a current state to a goal state when the solution is not immediately obvious

well-defined problems:

problems with clear goals, rules, and correct solutions

ill-defined problems:

problems with unclear goals, multiple possible solutions, and vague constraints

knowledge-rich problems:

problems that require extensive domain-specific knowledge to solve

knowledge-lean problems:

problems that require little prior knowledge and rely more on general reasoning

Monty Hall problem:

a probability problem demonstrating how people fail to update probabilities after new information

Gestalt approach:

theory emphasizing insight, perception, and restructuring in problem solving

insight:

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution after restructuring

remote associates test:

a test measuring insight by finding a common associate linking three words

facilitating insight: hints:

providing partial information that helps restructure the problem representation

facilitating insight: incubation and sleep:

improvement in problem solving after a break due to unconscious processing

representational change theory:

insight occurs when the problem representation is restructured

constraint relaxation: magic tricks:

insight achieved by relaxing incorrect assumptions about constraints

functional fixedness:

inability to see alternative uses for objects due to prior experience

mental set:

tendency to use previously successful strategies even when inappropriate

overcoming functional fixedness:

restructuring the problem or removing misleading object functions

problem-solving strategies:

general approaches used to navigate problem spaces

problem space:

all possible states and actions available to solve a problem

heuristics:

mental shortcuts that simplify problem solving but may lead to errors

algorithm:

a systematic, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

means-end analysis:

reducing differences between the current state and goal state

hill climbing:

selecting actions that move closest to the goal at each step

progress monitoring:

tracking how close one is to achieving the goal

planning:

organizing steps in advance to reach a goal

sequential processing stages:

step-by-step stages used during problem solving

how much planning?:

the degree of planning depends on problem complexity and working memory

cognitive miser:

tendency to minimize cognitive effort when thinking

analogical problem solving:

solving a problem by applying the solution of a similar problem

analogy:

a comparison between two situations based on shared relationships

superficial similarity:

similarity based on surface features

structural similarity:

similarity based on underlying relationships

procedural similarity:

similarity in solution methods

analogy detection:

recognizing that a prior problem can help solve a new one

working memory:

limited-capacity system for holding and manipulating information

expertise:

high-level performance resulting from extensive practice in a specific domain

chess-playing expertise:

expertise characterized by pattern recognition and memory templates

template theory:

experts use stored templates to recognize and process complex patterns

template:

a structured memory representation of familiar configurations

medical expertise:

expert diagnosis based on implicit pattern recognition

brain plasticity:

the brain’s ability to change structurally with experience

causality:

understanding that one event produces another

deliberate practice:

structured practice involving feedback and challenge

long-term working memory:

expert ability to rapidly access long-term memory during task performance

judgment:

estimating probabilities or values

decision making:

choosing among alternatives

judgment research:

study of how people evaluate probabilities and make judgments

Bayes’ theorem:

rule for updating beliefs based on new evidence

prior odds:

probability of a hypothesis before considering new evidence

base-rate information:

general probability of an event in the population

neglecting base rates:

ignoring base-rate information when making judgments

heuristics:

fast, efficient rules used to make judgments

representativeness heuristic:

judging probability based on similarity rather than statistics

conjunction fallacy:

judging a conjunction as more probable than a single event

representativeness heuristic in medical diagnosis:

diagnosing based on symptom similarity instead of base rates

heeding base rates:

incorporating population statistics into judgments

availability heuristic:

judging probability based on ease of recall

affect heuristic:

judgments influenced by emotional reactions

availability heuristic in medical diagnosis:

overestimating disease likelihood based on memorable cases

judgment theories:

theories explaining how people make probability judgments

support theory:

probability judgments depend on how outcomes are described

fast-and-frugal heuristics:

simple decision rules using minimal information

search rule:

determines what information is examined

stopping rule:

determines when to stop searching for information

decision rule:

determines how a choice is made

recognition heuristic:

choosing based on familiarity

hiatus heuristic:

stopping search when information is lacking

take-the-best strategy:

choosing based on the most important cue

information redundancy:

overlapping cues that do not add new information

natural frequency hypothesis:

people reason better with frequencies than probabilities

natural sampling:

learning probabilities through experience

frequencies:

counts of occurrences rather than percentages

dual-process theory (Kahneman):

theory proposing two systems of thinking

Kahneman’s system 1:

fast, automatic, heuristic-based processing

Kahneman’s system 2:

slow, effortful, analytical processing

decision making under risk:

choosing when outcomes have known probabilities

expected utility:

choice based on maximizing expected value

utility:

subjective value of an outcome

losses and gains:

outcomes evaluated relative to a reference point

prospect theory:

theory describing decision making under risk with loss aversion

loss aversion:

losses loom larger than gains

framing effect:

decisions change depending on how options are presented

sunk-cost effect:

continuing due to prior investment

overweighting rare events:

assigning too much importance to unlikely outcomes

loss neutrality:

treating gains and losses equally

individual differences:

variability in decision-making tendencies

emotional factors:

emotions influencing decisions

neuroeconomics:

study of neural mechanisms in decision making

impact bias:

overestimating emotional impact of future events

anticipated emotions:

expected future feelings

immediate emotions:

feelings experienced during decision making

omission bias:

preference for inaction over action

status quo bias:

preference for maintaining current state

social factors:

influence of others on decision making

accountability:

expectation of having to justify decisions

complex decision making:

decisions involving multiple interacting factors

Galotti’s naturalistic decision making:

real-world decision making involving goals and context

focused search:

systematic examination of limited options

exploratory search:

broad exploration of alternatives

haphazard search:

unsystematic exploration

inductive reasoning:

reasoning from specific cases to general conclusions