A-Level Politics: Liberalism

History of Liberalism

Influenced by 18th century "Enlightenment" period and 19th century Industrial Revolution.

Initial questioning of the Catholic Church (e.g Martin Luther)

The enlightenment saw scientists question prior knowledge/faith

Questioning of the authority of monarchs/the 'divine right'

Phases of liberalism?

Early Classical (1690-1700s)

Late Classical (1800s)

Modern (1900s)

Neo-Liberalism

Liberal Key Thinkers - Who and when?

-John Locke: 1600s / 'enlightenment'

-Mary Wollstonecraft: 1700s

-J.S Mill: 1800s

-John Rawls: 1900s (60s)

Betty Friedan: 1900s

Main focus of liberalism

The individual - their needs are central to political thinking...

-> self-determination: personal control

-> self-realisation: personal potential

-> self-fulfilment: individual 'mission' being achieved

What are the four features of early classical liberalism?

- Revolutionary Potential

-Negative Liberty

-Minimal State

-Lassiez-Faire Economics

Revolutionary potential

Limits power of monarch

(e.g French revolution / American revolution)

Negative Liberty

Freedom from constraints or the interference of others

What is a minimal state? Who would support this?

Limited government with a restricted role

(e.g Brexitiers support)

Thomas Jefferson on the state?

"The government that is best is that which governs least"

Lassiez-Faire Economics

Government should not interfere with the economy. This "hands-off" free market allowed prices to drop making goods more affordable.

No tax or regulation of private businesses

Adam Smith (economist) supported

What changed with late classical liberalism? (1800s)

The industrial revolution was taking place - people became more attracted to new, extreme ideologies to combat poor living situation

Jeremy Bentham on the role of the state?

British theorist and philosopher who proposed utilitarianism, the principle that governments should operate on the basis of utility, or the greatest good for the greatest number.

Campaigned for universal suffrage

What did Samuel Smiles argue in his book, 'Self Help'?

Humans would become 'stunted' with too much state help

(e.g healthcare - do people become

less bothered with an available NHS in England?)

What did Herbert Spencer say about government intervention in 'Man vs the State'?

Needed to be limited, as the demand for help may become too strong

Who was the giant of classical liberalism?

J.S Mill

John Stuart Mill

Arguably the most famous English philosopher and politician of the 1800s. Champion of liberty over unlimited state control. Also famous for adding falsification as a key component of the scientific method.

What did Mill argue in his book, 'On Liberty'?

Created the 'no harm' principle -> actions allowed as long as they do not cause harm to others

- Made a difference between 'self regarding' and 'other regarding' actions

- Warned against the tyranny of the majority / direct democracy

Wanted freedom of speech

Mill quote?

"Over his mind and body, the individual is sovereign"

What were the problems with Mill's views?

Universal suffrage: Encouraged female equality as influenced by his wife, but wanted education first

-Government could regulate possessions, but not trade

-Instances supported private gambling, yet not public

What are the four principles of modern liberalism?

- Positive freedom

-Enlarged state

-Constitutional reform

-Social liberalism

Positive Freedom

The idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential.

Government should empower people (e.g T H Green saw this necessary to helping poverty)

What is an enlarged state?

(or...an 'enabling' state)

Government intervention helps vulnerable

Enlarged state examples

1908 - First state pension created

1930s - Maynard Keynes encouraged helping poverty

Baveridge Report - 5 social evils identified and welfare state created

5 social evils / examples of reform

Want - Work is the solution to poverty

Disease - Needs health reform / an NHS

(on the rise in 21st century - 2/5 infants faced with housing concerns by doctors)

Ignorance - Can be rectified with free education

Squalor - Rectified with council housing

Idleness - Unemployment fixed by Keynesian economics

Constitutional reform

Adapting the constitution to better the state/evolve

(e.g. New Labour HRA 1998 / HOL Act 1999)

(doesn't support direct democracy, as this may result in 'tyranny of the majority')

Social Liberalism

Improvement of rights

(e.g 1964 CRA in USA)

(e.g 1970 Equal Pay Act)

Modern liberal key thinkers?

Betty Friedan

John Rawls

John Rawls

Advocated egalitarianism.

(veil of ignorance-making decisions with a blind eye to extraneous factors that could affect the decision)

What did Rawls advocate for?

State intervention

Redistribution of wealth/progressive taxation

Equality of opportunity/empathy ('veil of ignorance' experiment)

What did Friedan advocate for?

Legal change to enable gender equality

Ending to the dull life that 'cultural channels' (TV/education/church) portrayed women to have.

Neo-liberalism

An approach to the world economy, developed in the 1970s, that favored reduced tariffs, the free movement of capital, a mobile and temporary workforce, the privatization of industry, and the curtailing of government efforts to regulate the economy.

Should return to old values and end the 'dependency culture' that states have provided.

Von-Hayek argued in 'Road to Serfdom'

Liberals on human nature

Locke: Rational - capable of reason, empathy and rational thinking (optimistic view)

Wollstonecraft: Same view - but applied to women

"The mind has no gender"

Mill: Evolutionary and influenced by developmental individualism - education needed for this

-Egotistical individualism: Striving for own self-advancement

What is the difference between egotistical individualism and developmental individualism?

Egotistical: People are motivated by the pursuit of their own happiness

Developmental: Education enabling humans to reach their full potential

Liberal view of society

Society a collection of individuals

Locke: A 'state of nature' - tolerable and able to reach consensus

Life in this to be "pleasant, civilized and long"

J.S Mill: Purpose is to facilitate individualism and focus on individual freedoms

-> Rights to property, etc

Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion and tendency to tell everyone to act the same manner. The despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression and is

therefore contrary to the right and proper goal of a liberal

society.

Rawls: The society most individuals would choose would be the one where the condition of the poorest improved. Rawls

constructed the original position (the current society which

requires individuals to create a better society) and the veil of

ignorance (individuals are not aware of any other factors) and are all rational, free and morally equal beings.

How have liberals viewed the state?

- Initial purpose was to 'protect natural rights' (property owned by the wealthy)

- Locke emphasized 'government by consent' and freedom from government (limited government)

- Woolstonecraft argued that a Republic should replace the state, and have some interference in the rights of women

- J.S Mill argued for representative democracy through the state (links to tolerance)

- Rawls argued for an enlarged/enabling state that uplifted the vulnerable. Emphasises necessity for public spending -> equality of opportunity

- Friedan argued that the state should prevent discrimination

Dispersed power (separation of powers/bicameral legislature)

Give a Locke quote about government

"Government should always be the servant, not the master, of the people"

What is the purpose of the state? (JEMPT)

Justice: All are equal under the law

Equality of opportunity: Entitled to the same opportunities (foundational equality)

Meritocracy: Those who are capable/well educated should have power

Promotion of rights: Natural rights

Tolerance: Of other religions/groups

Foundational equality

Equal rights and equal entitlement that humans have by being born that can't be taken away

Liberal State

More than just democracy

Protection of basic rights

Free-market economy

What did liberals say about tolerance?

Voltaire: "I detest what you say but I will defend unto the death your right to say it"

J. S Mill: Promoted tolerance unless it was a violation of the no harm principle.

Betty Friedan: Campaigned for female/minority equality through tolerance

Social Contract Theory

The belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the declaration of independence.

What does a typical liberal economy include?

Lassiez-faire capitalism (people have the right to own capital)

Support free-market economics

Adam Smith supporting: 'trickle down' economics - wealth gradually benefits everyone

What did the key thinkers believe about the economy?

Locke: Should respect natural rights to property and allow trade. State property should arbitrate between competitive individuals.

Wollstonecraft: Women to be involved in free-market enterprise too/entitled to same rights as men

J. S Mill: Lassiez-faire capitalism emphasises progress. Supported individual enterprise

Rawls: Argued for progressive taxation under an enlarged state & campaigned for redistribution of wealth to help those living in misfortune.

Friedan: Free-market economics / Keynesian economics would help women be liberated

Keynesian economics

Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.

Similarities of modern and classical liberalism

- Optimistic about human nature/potential

- Believe in rationalism/tolerance

- Support capitalism / don't support state ownership of the economy

- Believe in 'government by consent'

Evidence of modern liberalism abandoning classical liberalism

-Classical liberals define 'liberty' as being alone (negative liberty), while modern liberals believe this must be 'enabled' (positive freedom)

- Classicals liberals wanted a minimal state, while modern liberals wanted an enabling state

- Classical liberals saw taxation as 'theft', while modern liberals find this necessary to achieving positive freedom

- Classical liberals support lassiez-faire capitalism (detached state), while modern liberals support Keynesian economics (state 'manages' the market)

John Locke

Social contract theory

Limited government.

Rational entities

State protects our freedoms

Property rights

Mary Wollstonecraft

1759-1797

Enlightenment feminist thinker in England

argued that new political rights should extend to women

Women are rational and capable of reason

J.S Mill

harm principle

Tolerance

Self regarding actions

Wary public opinion

Electoral reform

Feminist

John Rawls

Theory of Justice

The veil of ignorance

Social justice

Betty Friedan

Legal Equality

Equal Opportunity

Second wave feminist movement

Gender equality