psc41 units 1-4

the scientific method

observing phenomenon > asking a question > literature review > forming hypothesis > testing hypothesis > analyzing data > drawing conclusions > revising theory

deterministic

the scientific character that claims that phenomena are causally determined by preceding events or natural laws that can be discovered and explained

empircal

the scientific characteristic that claims that science is based on objective, reproducible evidence and not on pure reason, emotion, or subjective experiences

testable and falsifiable

the scientific characteristic that claims that a theory or hypothesis is not scientific unless it can be tested and shown to be false

provisional

the scientific characteristic that claims that a scientific theoyr is always open for review based on new evidence

public

the scientific characteristic that claims that science is a public good that benefits society and should be available to all

the goals of psychology research

describing the value of a single variable, identifying relationships between measured variables + making predictions from one variable to another variable, isolating the effect of one variable to another by manipulation + understanding cause/effect relationships between varia

construct

a hypothetical quality that is not directly observable, like happiness, satisfcation, or anxiety

variable

a condition or characteristic that can take on different levels, categories, or values and can be quantified/measured

characteristics of variables

label/concise name + operational definition + detail for replication =

operational definition

a description in terms of how exactly the variable was measured/manipulated (procedures, actions, materials, processes)

categorical and continuous 

the two types of variable type

categorical variables

variables that have levels of groups or words that vary in quallity or kind; summarized using percentage or frequency

continuous variables

variables that have meaningful numbers along a scale with at least 6 values that vary in quantity/amount ; summarized using the average and standard deviation

observation, self-report, monitoring

the methods of measuring variables

observation

the method of measuring variables that includes watching behavior and studying actions

self-report

the method of measuring variables that includes asking questions about attitudes, beliefs, feelings and ideas

monitoring

the method of measuring variables that includes monitorying physiological changes such as biological responses and physical states

manipulated

if a variable is under the experimenter’s control, than it is __

association claims

a type of claim that correlational research a can make ; identifies the relationship between measured variables

causal claims

the type of claim that experimental reserach can make ; identifies the relationships when the predictor variable is manipulated

predictor variables

the variable in correlational research that is a pre-existing characteristic

outcome variable

the variable in correlational research that is measured

independent variable

the variable in experimental research that is directly manipulated by the experimenter

dependent variable

the variable in experimental research that is the measured response

hypothesis

a testable statement / prediction about the relationship between variables of interest

null hypothesis

a hypothesis that states that there is no difference/relationship between groups/variables

research/alternative hypothesis

a hypothesis that is a specific prediction about the relationshp between the variables

overlap

a hypothesis is directional if the error bars of the data from two groups __

same

in order to conclude causation, two groups must be the __ and one variable must be manipulated while the other is measure

direction ; strength

if both variables are continuous, we indicate the __ and _ of the overall relationship

p value

a probability between 0-1 that indicates if the relationship between variables is likely to not be real

p < 0.5

the p value inequality that is statistically significant and indicates that a relationship between variables is likely to be real

p > = 0.05

the p value inequality that is not statistically significant and indicates that there is no evidence of a relationship between variables

positive linear relationship

this graph shows a __ where an increase in one variable relates to an increase in another

negative linear relationship

this graph shows a __ where an increase in one variable is relative to a decrease in another

curvilinear relationship

this graph shows a __ where an increase in one variable relative to both increases and decreases in another

no relationship

this graph shows __ where the variables are not related to each other

correlation coefficient

a statistic that quantifies the linear relationship between two continuous variables ranging from -1>+1

direction and strength

what are the two pieces of information that we can get from the correlation coefficient

causation

correlation does not imply __

validity

the degree to which variables measure what the researcher actually wants to measure and the evidence supports the conclusions/claims made about the data

reliability

the degree to which the value is consistent when the measureme

reliability 

correlation coefficients help assess __ because they asses how closely two measures resemble each other

+0.7

the correlation coefficient must be above a value of __ to be acceptable

test-retest, parallel forms, split-half

methods for assessing the reliability of surveys/tests

test-retest

a method for assessing the reliability of surveys/tests where two identical test are given at two time points

parallel forms

a method for assessing the reliability of surveys/tests where two equivalent tests are given at different time points

split-half

a method for assessing the reliability of surveys/tests where one test is given at a time and comparing the even/odds

inter-rater reliability

a method for assessing the reliability of observations where the ratings of different raters are compared for similarity

construct, internal, external, statistical

what four types of validity help evaluate research

construct validity

a type of validity assessing whether the content of the variable really measures the construct (face validity), if the operational definition of the variable is accurate (procedure-method match), and other extraneous variables

face validity

a type of construct validity assessing whether the operational definition accurately measures/manipulates the construc

method-match

a type of construct validity assessing whether the method used was appropriate to measure the variable

procedure

a type of construct validity assessing whether the method used added noise/error

likert-type scales

a type of self-report method where participants are given a range of response choices with equal intervals, normally with an odd number of options 

observer expectancy, self-fulfilling prophecies, observer effects, response sets

threats to construct validity

observer expectancy

a type of threat to construct validity in which researchers see what they expect to see

threat of observer expectancy

clearly defining variables, training observers, and using a blind research assistant are all solutions to solve the _

self-fulfilling prophecies

a type of threat to construct validity in which researchers inadvertently affect how participants act

the threat of self-fulfilling prophecies

using a blind research assistant or indirectly interacting with the participants are solutions to solve __

observer effects

a type of threat to construct validity in which people’s expectations affect how they respond

the threat of observer effects

minimizing interactions with participants, being unobtrusive or allowing time to acclimate, phrasing questions neutrally, and establishing reliability are all solutions to solve __

Hawthorne effect and social desirability / faking bad

the two types of observer effects are

response sets

a type of threat to construct validity in which mental shortcuts influence the way people respond as a systematic response manner is used

experimental research

what type of research starts with equivalent groups, manipulates one variable, and observes any effect on the outcome variable

validity

the degree to which the evidence supports the conclusions or claims made about the data

validity

these are all types of what:

• construct

• internal

• external

• statistical

internal validity

the degree to which a study or experiment is free from flaws in its internal structure and its results can therefore be taken to represent the true nature of the phenomenon

random assignment

every participant having an equal likelihood of being placed in each of the treatment group; happens during the experiment

random sampling

every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample; happens before the experiment

an alternative explanation of results

if an extraneous variable affects groups differently and can provide __; also called a confounding variable

random error

if an extraneous variable affects groups the same and can provide __

common threats to internal validity

what are these called:

• selection effect

• maturation effect

• testing effect

• mortality effect / attrition

• history effect

selection effect

a common threat to internal validity where there’s an unequal groups to begin with

maturation effect

a common threat to internal validity where changes occur due to time spent in the experiment

testing effect

a common threat to internal validity where there are changes due to measuring the outcome variable more than once

mortality effect / attrition

a common threat to internal validity where there are differences in groups due to some people dropping out or being removed

history effect

a common threat to internal validity where there are changes due to something in the external world

between groups

a type of experimental research design where each participant experiences one level of the independent variable; participating in one condition makes it impossible to participate in the other

within groups

a type of experimental research design where each participant experiences all levels of the independent variable; reduces the effects of individual differences

pre-test, post-test

a type of between groups design where participants are tested both before and after the experiement

post-test only

a type of between groups research design where participants are only tested after the experiment

institutional review board

an institution that reviews proposed studies considering respect for persons, beneficence, and justice

participant rights

informed consent, voluntary participation, and confidentiality are all types of what

deception

not telling the participants the true goal of the study; justified onlly if nondeceptive alternatives are not feasible

debriefing

explaining everything at the end of teh study

external validity

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the current study to other people, situations, or time periods

population

the entire set of people or products that are of interest to a researcher

sample

a subset of a population

representative probability

a type of sampling technique that uses random sampling with strong external validity

non-representative/non-probability 

a type of sampling technique where the sample may not be similar to the population and has weak external validity

random sampling

a type of representative sampling technique where every member of the population is listed, and a random sample is taken from the list

stratified random sampling

a type of representative sampling technique where every member of the population is listed, subgroups are identified, and random proportions of the subgroups are sampled

voluntary response sample

a type of non-representative sampling technique where individuals choose to respond to a general appeal for information

convenience sample

a type of non-representative sampling technique where people that are the easiest to contact and measure are included

quota sample

a type of non-representative sampling technique where the same number of people are selected, regardless of their prevalence in the population

error

the extent to which the sample differes from the population

margin of error

a measure of sampling error in categorical variables based only on sample size