Year 10 biology: Biomacromolecules

Biomacromolecules

They are giant molecules. They play essential roles in both the structure and function of cells. They include proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.

Monomer

Atoms or small molecules that bond together to form more complex structures such as polymers.

Polymer

Monomers that are joined together. Composed of very large molecules called macromolecules.

Carbohydrate (structure)

They are large molecules consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) and they have the general formula of C_x(H₂O)_y. They are made up of ‘monosaccharides’ monomers.

Carbohydrate (function)

-         Store energy (glucose, starch and glycogen)

-         Help cells recognise each other (your blood type is based on sugars)

- Give structure to plant cell walls (cellulase = fibre)

Monosaccharide

The simplest unit of a Carbohydrate. Mono = one, saccharide = sugar.

Polysaccharide

A long chain carbohydrates made up of monosaccharides.

Glucose

It is a type of sugar used to store energy. It is the main type of sugar in the blood and a major source of energy for the body’s cells.

Starch

Made up of a chain of glucose molecules joined together (polysaccharide/complex carbohydrate)

Lipids (structure)

Made up from fatty acids and a glycerol

-They usually repel water due to their structure

-A key * (need to know) is called ‘phospholipid’ – it makes up the cells membrane

-they don’t usually have monomers and polymers

Lipids (functions)

-Give structural support to the cell in the membrane

-energy storage

-cell signalling (some hormone/steroids)

Proteins (primary structure)

It is simply a chain of many AMINO ACIDS (monomer) joined together.

Proteins (secondary)

(Secondary and tertiary) The amino acid chain twists and folds into specific shapes

Proteins (Quaternary)

(less common) This is when several Tertiary structures will join together to form a super protein.

Proteins (functions)

They help to perform almost every chemical reaction in cell/organism.

Nucleic Acids (structure)

-Nucleic acids are made from monomers called ‘NUCLEOTIDES’

-Each nucleotide is made up of a phosphate + sugar + nitrogenous base.

Nucleic Acids (functions)

- major function involves the storage and expression/processing of genomic information

-protein building

-Generation of energy cells

-cell creation

Adenosine

An autacoid that plays a critical role in regulating cardiac function, including heart rate, contractility, and coronary flow. (Contained in DNA & RNA)

Thymine

Helps stabilise nucleic acid structures. (Contained in DNA)

Cytosine

Forming base pairs by bonding with guanine and forming the genetic code found in both DNA and RNA.

Guanine

To make one of the building blocks of DNA and RNA

Uracil

To carry out the synthesis of many enzymes necessary for cell function through bonding with riboses and phosphates. (Contained in RNA)

Double helix

The two double stranded sides then twist to form the structure (it is used to describe the physical structure of DNA).

Cell membrane

Also called the plasma membrane. It controls the movement of food, oxygen, & water into the cell as well as waste products out of the cell. It also allows some particles to pass through, thus it is a semi-permeable membrane. It is made up of mostly lipids (phospholipids) but it also scattered with proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrate chains.

Semi-permeable

Meaning that it allows some particles to pass through.

Diffusion

It is the overall net movement of particles form an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

This is almost exactly the same as diffusion except there is the use of a protein. The net movement of particles across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration requiring the assistance of a protein.

Osmosis

Special type of diffusion that involves the movement of water molecules across a semi permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration.

(they are still considered a type of diffusion because they move down their own concentration gradient – water is more concentrated where there are less solutes)

Active Transport

The net movement of particles across a cell membrane from a region of low concentration into a region of higher concentration (opposite to diffusion) With the assistance of protein carriers and energy (as ATP)

Concentration Gradient

This occurs when there is an uneven distribution of a substance in a space or across a membrane.

Solvent

Any substance, usually liquid, which is capable of dissolving one or several substances, thus creating a solution.

Solute

Any substance that is dissolved in a liquid solvent.

Hypotonic

‘Hypo’ means ‘below’. When the concentration of solutes is lower outside than inside the cell, the solution is said to be hypotonic. Water molecules move into the cell faster than out.

Isotonic

When concentration of gradients is the same outside the cell as in. Water molecules move in and out of the cell at the same rate.

Hypertonic

When the concentration of solutes is higher outside the cell than in. Water molecules move out of the cell faster than they move in.

Turgid

When the cells or tissues of a plant gets swollen by absorbing water. The cell membrane of a plant push against the wall of cells and result in increased size. This occurs in a Hypotonic environment.

Endocytosis

Involves substances coming into the cell in such a way that they end up enclosed in some membrane from the cell.

Plasmolysis

This term occurs when plants cells are placed in a hypertonic environment and water is drawn out of the cells. The large vacuole shrinks causing the cell to shrink and the cell membrane begins to pull away from the cell wall.

Exocytosis

Involves substances exiting the cell when the substances will be in a ‘bubble’ of membrane that will fuse with the cell membrane to release the contents.

Independent variable

The variable that you manipulate and are testing the effects on.

Dependent Variable

The variable that you observe and record during the experiment. It’s the variable that is impacted by the independent variable.

Controlled Variables

The variables that must be kept the same across all samples to ensure a fair test.

Hypothesis

An educated guess regarding the cause and effect of variables. It can be tested by experimentation and observation. it should be both testable and falsifiable (can be shown to be incorrect)

Limitation

Something that the researcher cannot control. They are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled.

Precision

The closeness of two or more measurements. E.g. Do this by measuring at least twice, Have duplicates, Average results.

Accuracy

The ability to obtain the correct measurement. E.g. Use good equipment well, Use better equipment and Calibrate equipment.

Random Errors

These are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings. E.g. Reduce by: making a duplicate or measuring more than once and averaging. Also by refining the measurement method or technique.

Systematic Errors

Can cause readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made, so that all the readings are skewed in one direction (affecting accuracy, but not precision). E.g. Reduced by:  Calibrating and using equipment well, NOT REDUCED BY AVERAGING.

Outlier

Readings that lie a long way from other results.

Qualitative

Described using words. e.g large, bright, pink, long

Quantative

Described using numbers, generally with units. e.g. 4mL, 5cm, 24 hrs

Primary data

Data that you collect yourself through conducting an investigation. e.g. results of how many students handwrite notes

Secondary data

Data collected by a reliable third party and analysed or evaluated by you. e.g. science article

Continuous data

Data that can occupy any value over a continuous range. e.g. height, time

Discontinuous data

(/discrete) data that falls into distinct classes or categories. e.g. whole numbers, type of ball

Validity

Refers to whether results are sound and can be generalised. A measurement/ experiment is said to be valid if it measures what it is supposed to be measuring.

Control group

A group of samples that are not manipulated with respect to the independent variable.

Experimental groups

They have different variations of the independent variable being changed.

Reliability

An experiment will obtain the same results on repeated trials under the same conditions. E.g. To do this; Repeat it many times,      Ensure the method is clear and repeatable.

Phototrophs

An organism that can use visible light as a primary source of energy for metabolism.

Chemotrophs

A class of organisms that obtain their energy by the oxidation of inorganic molecules, such as iron and magnesium

Autotrophs

An organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

Heterotrophs

An organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients.

Chloroplasts

The place where photosynthesis takes place. They are membrane bound organelles that contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs light and it is the energy from this light that drives photosynthesis. This process occurs during the day where there is sunlight.

ATP

Adenosine-Tri-Phosphate, the energy currency. This is the energy that the plant needs to convert glucose into to be able to use the energy (glucose is used for energy storage)

Cellular Respiration

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ -> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP
Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

Photosynthesis

6CO₂ + 6H₂O -> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen

Mitochondria

This is where cellular respiration occurs. This process occurs during the night

Anaerobic Respiration

This is a type of respiration without oxygen. It produces two molecules of ATP.

Enzyme

A substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without itself being altered in the process. (speeds up process)

Substrate

A molecule that an enzyme reacts with. It is the reactant(s) in the reaction.

Active sight

It is part of the enzyme in which the reaction occurs. It is where the substrate binds

Product

The substance obtained after the reaction. Enzymes only alter the rate of the reaction – they don’t change the products that are produced by it.