PSYC 304 EXAM 1

3 basic views of the role of animals

PETA	Middle (most people)	antropocentrism
Animals deserve all same rights as humans Animal liberation front Vegan JANE GOODALL Researchers don't want to admit that animals have feelings  Personalities, feelings, and minds “Keep blinkers on” (push away, not think about it)	Animals should be treated as well as possible but human needs should come first Research needs to be humane Animal use in research must be justified and alternatives must be explored (brain surgery) Stem cells Institutional animal care and use for research	Animals were put on earth for our use We need not worry about conservation and preservation DESCARTES (1646) Don't need to study animals because they act mechanically and instinctually (no feelings or thoughts) Like a clock that tells time better than our judgement does

History of animal behavior study

• Study of behaviors all for practical bx

  • Cop dogs, pigeon carriers, horses

  • As a result knowledge somewhat haphazard

  • Selective breeding and creationist, genetic mutations

Early knowledge of animals

• Natives had vast knowledge of animal bx

• Sumerian clay tablets from over 5000 years ago depict over 100 kinds of birds and 50 types of fish

• Specifically knowledge for those animals they hunted

Aristotle – animal behavior

• Systematically recorded animal bx

• Aristotle wrote two volumes on animal bx

• Gathered info from self and travellers

• Included modern ideas such as evolutionary dev across species

• Some information was inaccurate (they believed in unicorns)

Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, & Niko Tinbergen

• Three European researchers that studied animals extensively in natural settings

• Shared noble prize in 1973 for research and began ethology

Ethology

• Habits record of how animals behave in natural environments

• HABITS

• DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIORS, stress response, critical moments when genes “turn on” epigenetics

• Imprinting, change animals reproductive organs

Comparative Psychologists

Scientists in the U.S. were exploring animal bx in labs

Frank Beach

• Study the effects of hormones on sexual bx in several classes of vertebrates

• Emphasized the importance of discovering the mechanism behind bx

B. F. Skinner

• Developed general learning principles that applied to both human and nonhuman animals 

• Skinner box

Behavioral Ecology

• Both ethology and comparative psychology used

• JOHN CROOK 1964

• Environment and bx patterns

• Distribution of food and the behaviors of predators

• These things are driving force in evolution and can affect a wide variety of behaviors

• The ecology may be more informative than the taxonomy/lineage of animals

• UNDERSTAND DEV OF BX

E. O. Wilson – sociobiology

• Proposed field to explain social phenomena (sociology)

• Evolutionary explanations to explain human behavior like infidelity and homosexuality

Evolutionary Psychology

• Devid buss, leslie cosmides, john tooby

• Genetic environmental interaction are EPIGENETICS

Observational methods

• Oldest method and naturalistic

• ETHOGRAM: habits record (constant bx)

• Systematic recording

  • Video, film every 15 minutes or 24 hours live, drawing, written

  • Hide behind animals or use binoculars so no interference

Correlational methods

• Look for measurable changes in bx that can be predictable from another variable

• Nothing manipulated by experimenter

• Correlation does not equal causation

• Manipulation may be unethical, not possible, and you can look for possible causes that can be experimentally tested

Experimental methods

• Research conducted in a lab setting with a strict control over variables

• Manipulate the independent variable only independent, get confounds out

• Measure the effects on the dependent variable

• Difficult to generalize to the real world

• Field experiments (semi natural, manipulate habitat slightly)

Comparative methods

• Comparisons of bx within species or among different species 

• Within: common ancestor, garter snake that lives on coast or mountains

• Different: (humans and dogs have similar digestive systems), related species, species that share a common environment or challenge

Theory

• Theory, a working set of rules that define a body of knowledge (follow rules, likely to get similar results)

  • Never 100% certain so can never prove a theory but it has a lot of supporting evidence

  • evolutionary theory

Hypothesis

• A proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon or set of phenomena

• Follows a theory, is more speculative, not well tested, add one new variable

• if/then

• If humans evolved from apes, then apes may have similar brain structures to humans

Evolution

• Life forms change over time and can eventually develop into distinctly different forms

• There is a vast amount of data to support that evolution occurs 

• Scientists do not debate whether evolution happens, but rather how it happens

• Evolution was postulated by many early thinkers, including Aristotle and Erasmus darwin (Charles’ darwin’s grandfather) 

• The problem was explaining how these changes occur

Charles Darwin

• 22 year old sailed on south america HMS Beagle as the naturalist

• He noticed that the plants and animals seemed to have a south american “stamp”

• By coincidence, he was reading about the theory of gradualism in geology (earth is old)

• Profound geological change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes

• Contrasted with catastrophism (god did this)

Natural Selection

In 1844, he wrote the long essay “on the origin of species”, did not publish right away

Digger bees

• Darwinian puzzle

• Why do they smell to dig to mate

• Because mate can only mate with a male once so the fastest, strongest male bee with best sense of smell evolves and is naturally selected (genes are passed down)

Alfred Wallace

• COINED NATURAL SELECTION FIRST

• Sought to publish in 1858

• Sent his paper to darwin

• Darwin finally decided to publish his findings and theory 

Darwin’s 3 important Observations

• Variation in genetics

• Some traits inherited

• More offspring is produced than what survives (malthalus, population control) not everyone survives

Variations in fitness

• Some individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce than others

• Animals with transit that promote survival and successful reproduction are more likely to pass these traits on to the next generation

• Over time this will lead to changes in the population

Adaptation

• Hereditary trait, can be inherited or passed on 

• Spreading bc natural selection, helps population for some reason

• Alt. transit must exist or there will be not variability

• fitness

Adaptationists

• Scientists who develop and test hypotheses on the possible adaptive value of trait

• Darwinian puzzle

Alleles

BB or bb or Bb

 GENES

• Genetic code, may or may not be expressed phenotypically (could be behaviors not just physical traits)

Darwinian puzzles

• Why do some traits that do not seem to be adaptive adapt?

• Why do zebras have stripes? (camouflage, cant detect body contour, regulate temperature, injuries displayed to mates bc stripes are disrupted)

 adaptive

beneficial

Infanticide

• Kill infants of other genetic variants to ensure survival of dominant male’s genetics (gorillas)

Carolus Linnaeaus

• Systems used to classify animals and plants

• Kingdoms subdivided on anatomy and physiology 

Taxonomy – kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, variety

• Genus is capitalized

• Specials not capitalized

• Whole scientific name italicized

• Canis familiaris 

Phylogenetic tree – how to read them

• Shows evolution history of species

• Uses a variety of information

  • Anatomy, physiology, behaviors, comps, molecules

• DNA molecules

Eusocial

• Tasks are divided amongst the group

• Only a few reproduce and the rest take care of the young

• Bees and ants

Altruism

Helpful behaviors that lowers the helper’s reproductive success while increasing the reproductive success of the group being helped

Intelligent design theory

• Pseudoscience that states that the world has intelligent design by god

Group selection

• Groups with altruistic individuals are more likely to survive than groups with no altruism

• Altruistic groups are more likely to survive so the altruism behavior genes get passed on and the other parts of the group return the favor

Coefficient of relatedness (r)

• The probability that an allele in one individual is shared by another 

• OBLIGATE: have to be helpful (no other choice, in DNA)

• FACULITATIVE: not life long, a choice, humans 

• Siblings = 0.5 x 0.5 = .25

• ID twins 1x1=1

Fitness

• More beneficial to help direct relatives than indirect relatives

Direct selection

• A behavior is directly selected for for survival (ability to hunt)

Direct fitness

• Measure of genetic success based on how many offspring survive and reproduce 

• If one kid 0.5 = 0.5

• If five kids 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 2.5

Indirect selection (kin selection)

• Individuals with different hereditary makeup may differ in number of nondescendants they help survive

• Individuals often gain more by caring for offspring than leaving them to have more offspring

• Caring for non descendants may yield survivor benefits

Indirect fitness

• Relatives number of close relations that the individual helps survive to be able to reproduce

• Personal reproduction (direct) = r x 2 offspring = (0.5 x 2) = 1

• Relatives reproduction indirect) = r x 5 offspring = 0.25 x 5 = 1.25

  • Will help relatives more (more adaptive)

Inclusive fitness

• A quantitative measure of an individual's total contribution of genes to next generation

• Both direct and indirect fitness

•  Raise 2 offspring 2 x 0.5 = 1 and save 3 of cousins with an alarm call 3 x 0.125 = 0.375 …. 1+0.375 = 1.375

• Altruism vs promoting personal reproduction 

Behavioral strategy

• Two or more different behavioral transit of strategies that may exist in the population

• Inclusive fitness helps us determine if a behavior, for example, an altruistic alarm call, is more adaptive than behaviors that promote personal reproductions only

Hamilton’s rule

• A gene for altruism will only spread is the act promotes greater survival than the cost of the act

Haploid vs. diploid eggs

• Haploid, eggs with only one set of chromosomes

• Diploid, eggs with pairs of matching chromosomes

Eusocial behavior

• Ants, bees, wasps

• Sterile numbers that secure and take care of young

• Darwin: these individuals reap indirect fitness from helping relatives

• Hamilton's rule makes this relationship more explicit (inheritance groups in insects make eusocial groups more likely to survive)

Haplodiploidy hypothesis

• Males are haploid so sisters are more closely related in this wasp species

• On average, sisters will share 75% of their genes because only 25% of genes come from father

• So, more indirect fitness is gained from helping sisters

Theory of descent with modification

• Darwin proposed that we can reconstruct the evolutionary history of specific traits

• We can identify the distant ancestors to trace the gradual modification of traits over time

• Not clone of parents (half and half)

Honey bee dancing – waggle dance

• Communicate exact distance and quality of food sources, helps the survival of the group, more fitness in dancing the more likely they will survive with food and pass down genes

• Theory of descent with modification 

First Stage

• – Workers run about excitedly

• – Other workers use the scent on the worker to try to

• find food source

• Intermediate Stage

• – Worker marks food source with pheromone

• – She deposits the pheromone on landmarks on the

• way back to the hive

• More Complex Stage

• – Pulses indicate the distance

• – Uses a zigzag flight to indicate direction, then has other

• workers follow her to food source

Phylogeny

• Look at phylogeny of eusocial insects and test role of monogamy

• Evolutionary history and development of organisms

Ecology of eusocial behavior

• Each time common ancestor monogamous, in case in which polyandry appears the worker has already lost the ability to mate

Costs/benefits of social life

- COSTS

• large group easier for predator to spot

• Increase risk for disease and parasites to spread

• More competition for food and mates (cuckoldry , female competition)

- BENEFITS

• Increase protection from predators (DILUTION EFFECT ZEBRAS)

• More likely to spot a predator in time

• Helps increase immunity to pathogens

• Info shared on where food is (bees)

• Weaker individuals are protected

• Males can cuckold (sneaky male benefit)

• Easier to find mates

• Division of labor among specialists

• Richer learning environment for young

• Modify environment as a group

Cooperation

• Different from altruism because both parties gain direct fitness from helping one another at the same time

  • Wolfpack

  • Darwinian puzzle, helping bx returned later (manakins)

Reciprocal altruism

• The helper gains direct fitness when its repaid

• Primates grooming each other (taking turns)

• Reciprocity likely to evolve?

Prisoner’s dilemma

• Two people going to prison, if both betray each other, they each get two years in prison

• If one betrays the other but the other stays silent, the betrayer is free and the other gets three years

• Both stay silent, each only get one year in prison

• ADAPTIVE MULTIPLE PLAY RECIPROCITY: those that don't cheat are better off in the long run because they have developed good will with others that will pay off

Nondescendant kin

• Members of the society that you help but are not related to you

• Could be beneficial due to reciprocal altruism

Adaptive value of helping at the nest

• In birds, older siblings give up reproduction and take care of younger siblings

  • Darwinian puzzle

• Using Hamilton's rule, what is cost and benefit?

• Helping siblings are more beneficial than having own offspring because siblings will reproduce more and continue genetic lineage

By-product hypothesis

• Selecting out tendency to be helpful would have negative consequences for own offspring

• Helpless: higher levels of PROLACTIN, hormones could be causing

Naked mole rats and eusocial behavior

• One dominant female and three males facilitate breeding

• Workers dig tunnels and are subordinate

• Soldiers protect colony

Facultative altruism

• Altruism done consciously to help others and get repaid later

Obligate altruism

• In DNA, cannot change it and will do it instinctively (bees, eusociality)

Communication

• Transfer of information from signaller to receiver

True communication

• When both groups intend to communicate

Manipulation or deceit

• SENDER: benefits

• RECEIVER: harmed or uneffected

Eavesdropping or exploitation

• SENDER: harmed or uneffected

• RECEIVER: benefits

Ignoring or spite

• SENDER: both may be harmed

• RECEIVER: both may be harmed

Spotted hyenas-greeting ceremony

• Sniff one another’s penis in “greeting ceremony”

• This happens in both females and males

• Females have enlarged clitoris (pseudopenis)

• EVOLUTION OF GREETING CEREMONY

  • Submission hypothesis: dominant females and submissive males; transmit subs that are willing to accept this status

  • Social bonding hypothesis: increase social bonding, reduce tension and aggression

Sensory exploitation

• Signalers happens to tap into pre existing sensory biases of receivers

• EXAMPLE: many sex pheromones of insects have floral odor, so preexisting bias to respond to flower odor

• Sex hormone is floral: a response already exists, so the signal can then evolve to take advantage of sensory cue

• Females may have been dominant over males before pseudopenis evolved (males present an erect penis to dominant females to signal that they were a non threatening male that was ready to mate

• Females may have evolved to use this same signal to indicate subordination (could stay with social group, improving chances for survival/offspring

Water mites

• Females look for prey with vibrations on the water, males will mimic vibrations and then lure the female and mate with them

Cichlid fish

• Females gravitate towards round yellow eggs and will protect them in their mouth

• Males have yellow spots on their fins and flash their fins, then the females open their mouth and the egg gets fertilized by the males ejaculate

Guppies

• Females drawn to orange things because it signals carotin rich foods

• Males develop orange color, female gets attracted to them and then the male fertilizes her

Evolutionary pathways

• Less complex traits evolve into more complex ones as a result of small developments over time

• Natural selection can only operate on what already exists

“panda principle”

• Evolved special “thumb” adapted from wrist bone in addition to 5 digits

• Evolved from ancestors who hunted prey

Threat displays

• ritualized, often they don't even attempt to harm one another

• Likely intended to display fitness of independence

• The pitch a toad creates accurately indicates its size

Honest signal

• Show strength or fitness

• If signals are costly, only strong, healthy individuals will be able to give signals

Paper wasps

• Signal is black splotches or badges to show social status

• Strict social policing, if the wasp cannot prove herself if the badges are altered to show higher dominance, then it is taken down a peg by peers and excluded from mating circles

Ravens and food signaling

• Haa sounds to signal food is there

• Juveniles communicate back with chii sounds that is high pitched to signal that communication is received

Illegitimate signalers-deception

• False signal to attract animal to predator 

  • Mating signals used by predator to attract prey

  • Why do animals still respond if it lowers their fitness?

Fireflies

• Use illegitimate signals of other species’ females to lure and kill and eat responsive males

Bolas spider

• Attracts moth by mimicking female moth’s pheromone

  • Male moths caught in web because ignoring signal a large cost

Novel environment theory

• Adaptive once but no longer adaptive

• Conditions changed, animals not evolved yet to new condition

• Seems to be most relevant when humans alter environment

Net benefit theory

• Mechanism adaptive overall, even though predator may exploit it

• seems to fit most natural conditions

Pheromone

• Signals emitted from animals to communicate with potential mates or communicate danger

Illegitimate receivers-eavesdropping

• Species emits signal, and receiver that the signal was not intended for causes behaviors in other species

Tungara frogs

• Emit call for mates

• Fringe-lipped, frog eating bats respond and come and eat the frogs

• If frog stops, bat can use echolocation and track the frog with the ripples in the water

European great tit –alarm calls

• Emit sound to warn about predator

• Predators such as hawks and owls detect sound and then hunt the great tits