Unit 2

APA Ethical Principles

A set of guidelines to make sure people in study are kept without harm

• protects

• 5

BImodal Distribution

data has two peaks

• two high points

• m

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals

• one person

• not the most reliable

Causation

the empirical relation between two events, states, or variables such that change in one (the cause) brings about change in the other (the effect)

• the effect

• relationship

Collectivism

the tendency to view oneself as a member of a larger (family or social) group, rather than as an isolated, independent being.

• team

• not individual

Confederate

in an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment.

• actor

• rehearsed

Confounding Variable

in an experiment, an independent variable that is conceptually distinct but empirically inseparable from one or more other independent variables

• independent variables

• dependent

Control Group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

• not treated

• basis

Convenience Sample

any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability

• easy

• available

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

• do they effect eachother

• why do they effect eachother

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1)

• index

• scale

Cultural Humility

active engagement in an ongoing process of self-reflection that informs deeper understanding and respect of cultural differences

• culture

• self

Deception in Research

any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others. For example, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant has engaged in deception.

• lying

• not telling what the true experiment is

Dependent Variable

the outcome that is observed to occur or change after the occurrence or variation of the independent variable in an experiment, or the effect that one wants to predict or explain in correlational research.

• what changes

• observed

Directionality Problem

in correlational research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

• confused

• how are they related

Double-Blind Research

a procedure in which both the participants and the experimenters interacting with them are unaware of the particular experimental conditions

• both unaware

• conditions

Effect Size

any of the various measures of magnitude/meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables

• the effect it has on other things

• how important

Eugenics

a social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding

Evolutionary Perspective

an approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges

• history

• past behavior

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables.

• the test

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

• the group being tested

Experimenter Bias

any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher’s behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results.

• researchers bias

• interpreting data with bias

Falsifiable Hypothesis

there is possible evidence that would not count as consistent with the hypothesis

• could be wrong

• evidence

Generaizability

making predictions based on past observations

Harm in Research

an injury to the rights, safety or welfare of a research participant that may include physical, psychological, social, financial or economic factors

• ethics

• bad for subject

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

• a prediction

Hypothetical Thinking

imagining possibilities and exploring their consequences through a process of mental simulation

• outside the box

• unique

Independent Variable

a variable (often denoted by x ) whose variation does not depend on that of another

• alone

• x

Individualism

the concept that a state of mind is an entity to which the viewpoint of a psychological theory can be applied

• unique

• personal

I-O Psychology

Informed Assent

an agreement by an individual not competent to give legally-valid informed consent

• kids

• special needs

Informed Consent

a process of communication between you and your health care provider that often leads to agreement or permission for care, treatment, or services

• allowing tests

• permission

Institutional Review

group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical research involving human subjects

• double checking

• judges

Likert Scales

a rating scale used to measure survey participants' opinions, attitudes, motivations, and more

• measurement

Mean

the sum of all values in a dataset divided by the total number of values.

• average

• ex. 5+6+2+9/4

Measures of Central Tendency

a single score that represents a whole set of scores.

• generalizing

• mean median and mode

Measures of Variation

explains the amount of variation within a set of data

• how different it is

Median

The middle value in research

• sequential first

• middle

Meta-Analysis

the statistical integration of the results of independent studies, leading to conclusions that are more reliable than those derived in independent studies or in a theoretical review.

• observing

• looking into

Metacogniton

the capacity to reflect on, evaluate, and control cognitive processes such as decision-making, memory, and perception.

Mode

The most common value in data

• most common

• most frequent

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

• real

• authentic

Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other

• opposite

• temp and jackets

Negative Skew

mean is lower than median, example of one person bombing a test making it look like the class average is lower

• high to the right

• one bad

Nonmaleficence

the requirement of institutional review boards that studies “do no harm” to participants

• protection

• ethics

Normal Curve

The normal distribution can be illustrated with a bell curve in that it's shaped like a bell, which suggests that most of the data is clustered around the mean value in the center

• 68

• 95

• 99.8

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

• steps

• guide

Peer Review

the quality and potential contribution of each manuscript is evaluated by one's peers in the scientific community

• quality control

• necessary

Percentile Rank

the percentage of individuals in the distribution with scores at or below the particular value.

• rank

• category

Placebo

An inactive substance or other intervention that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested

• fake medicine

• in place

Placebo Effect

a clinically significant response to a therapeutically inert substance or nonspecific treatment (placebo), deriving from the recipient’s expectations or beliefs regarding the intervention. It is now recognized that placebo effects accompany the administration of any drug (active or inert) and contribute to the therapeutic effectiveness of a specific treatment

Population

all those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn

• the group

• can be a classroom or whole country

Positive Correlation

when the two variables move in the same direction

• same direction

• positive slope

Positive Skew

mean is higher than median, example of a billionaire moving to the neighborhood makes the average income level higher

• top closer to left

• higher average

Qualitative Research

a method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences

• descriptive

• observations

Quantitative Research

a method of research that relies on measuring variables using a numerical system, analyzing these measurements using any of a variety of statistical models, and reporting relationships and associations among the studied variables.

• numbers

• variables

Random Sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

• by chance

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

• assigning by chance

Range

difference between the highest and lowest scores (can be deceptive due to outliers)

• horizontal

• x axis

Regression Toward the Mean

the tendency of results that are extreme by chance on first measurement—i.e. extremely higher or lower than average—to move closer to the average when measured a second time

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

• repeating

• same thing

Representative Sample

a subset of a population that seeks to accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger group

• represents a whole

• subset

Reversibility

the idea that actions, thoughts, or things can be reversed

Representative Sample

a subset of a population that seeks to accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger group

• characteristics

• group

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Sample

the method by which participants are selected to be included in a study

• the people in trial

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

• flawed

• process

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

• line of best fit

• physics

Single-Blind Procedure

A type of clinical trial in which only the researcher doing the study knows which treatment or intervention the participant is receiving until the trial is over

• subject unaware

• deception

Socio-Cultural Perspective

the belief that social interaction plays an important role in learning,

• friends

• social

Skewed Distribution

neither symmetric nor normal because the data values trail off more sharply on one side than on the other

• uneven

• not symmetrical

Standard Deviation

how much any score differs from the mean score

• difference from average

• larger when scores are more spread out

Statistical Signficance

measures the probability of the null hypothesis being true compared to the acceptable level of uncertainty regarding the true answer

Structured Interview

an employment assessment tool where every part of the process is kept consistent

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

• self reported

• questioning a group

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

• an explanation

Third Variable Problem

a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not.