Reliability and Validity of Sociological Research Methods

Question-and-Answer flashcards covering reliability and validity strengths and weaknesses for 15 sociological research methods, plus key concepts and examples.

Why are structured interviews considered highly reliable?

They follow a standardised format with identical questions, order, and tone, making replication straightforward and responses easy to quantify.

What interviewer-related factor can lower the reliability of structured interviews?

Interviewer effects (tone, posture, emphasis) may still influence answers despite the structured format.

How do structured interviews enhance validity when gathering factual data?

Face-to-face interaction lets researchers clarify questions, reducing misunderstanding and boosting face validity for factual or behavioural topics.

Give one reason structured interviews may have low validity on sensitive topics.

Respondents may provide socially desirable answers rather than truthful ones, limiting authenticity.

Why are unstructured interviews typically low in reliability?

They are informal and unique each time, with varying questions and responses that are hard to replicate.

How can researchers improve the reliability of unstructured interviews?

By audio-recording, transcribing, and coding data with a clear topic guide or thematic framework.

What makes unstructured interviews highly valid for interpretivists?

Their open format encourages rapport and detailed, qualitative insight into participants’ lived experiences (verstehen).

Name a validity problem associated with unstructured interviews.

Participants may withhold information or lie if they feel judged, and researcher subjectivity can distort meaning.

Why is overt participant observation generally low in reliability?

Personal involvement and unique field conditions make it nearly impossible to replicate the exact same observations.

How can reliability be slightly improved in overt participant observation?

Using structured field notes or observation checklists to focus on specific behaviours.

What gives participant observation high ecological validity?

It studies people in their natural environments, building rapport to access hidden meanings and behaviours.

Explain the ‘going native’ threat to validity in participant observation.

Researchers may become too involved and lose objectivity, leading to biased interpretations.

How can non-participant observation achieve higher reliability than participant observation?

By employing a structured observation schedule and remaining outside the group to reduce interpersonal bias.

Give a reliability limitation of non-participant observation.

Subjective interpretation of behaviours can still vary between researchers, especially in covert settings.

Why can covert non-participant observation offer high validity?

Participants act spontaneously, avoiding the Hawthorne effect and producing naturalistic data.

What validity issue arises when researchers do not interact in non-participant observation?

They may misinterpret symbolic behaviours because they cannot access participants’ thoughts or meanings.

Why are laboratory experiments viewed as highly reliable?

Controlled settings, isolated variables, and standardised procedures allow exact replication.

State one reason sociological lab experiments might be difficult to replicate exactly.

Human behaviour is context-sensitive and the artificial lab setting may not recreate real-world social variables.

When can laboratory experiments achieve high validity?

When measuring direct, observable behaviours with well-operationalised variables and minimal external distractions.

Identify a key validity criticism of lab experiments in sociology.

Low ecological validity—participants may behave unnaturally or show demand characteristics.

What feature of field experiments can improve their reliability compared with purely natural observation?

Use of standardised procedures such as consistent timing, settings, and sample selection.

Why do field experiments suffer reliability problems?

Uncontrolled real-world variables make it hard to recreate the exact same situation.

How do field experiments gain ecological validity?

They occur in real-life settings where participants often unaware of being studied, producing natural behaviour.

Name one ethical or validity concern in field experiments.

Lack of informed consent when participants are unaware, or external influences that researchers cannot control.

What makes official statistics generally reliable?

Regular, standardised data collection by state agencies enables consistent longitudinal comparison.

Describe a reliability drawback of official statistics.

Definitions or categories (e.g., ‘unemployment’) can change over time, limiting comparability.

Give an example of a highly valid official statistic.

Birth or death rates, which are factual and accurately recorded population events.

Why might crime statistics lack validity, according to interpretivists?

They omit the ‘dark figure’ of unreported crime and reflect official definitions, not lived experiences.

Under what conditions can documents be considered reliable sources?

When they are formal, standardised, and consistently collected, such as government reports or school registers.

Why are personal diaries often low in reliability?

They lack standardisation and reflect individual, context-specific viewpoints that are hard to replicate.

How do documents provide high validity for sociologists?

They offer rich, unobtrusive qualitative data revealing thoughts, emotions, and meanings in natural contexts.

State one validity risk when using personal documents.

They may contain exaggeration, selective memory, or false information, challenging authenticity.

How can focus groups attain some reliability?

By using the same discussion guide and structured moderation across groups, plus recording sessions.

What group dynamic limits the reliability of focus groups?

Variation in participant interaction—dominant voices or differing atmospheres cannot be replicated.

Why are focus groups valued for high validity?

Interactive discussions generate rich insights, spontaneous opinions, and collective meaning-making.

Identify a validity threat specific to focus groups.

Peer pressure or social desirability bias may cause participants to conform or withhold true views.

What design feature supports the reliability of longitudinal studies?

Consistent measures applied to the same individuals over time with regular data collection.

Explain how attrition affects the reliability of longitudinal studies.

Participant dropout changes the sample and reduces comparability across waves.

Why are longitudinal studies often considered valid for studying life-course effects?

They track change over time, revealing causal relationships between early experiences and later outcomes.

Describe one validity issue in longitudinal research.

Panel conditioning—participants alter behaviour because they know they are being studied.

Why are case studies typically low in reliability?

They focus on unique individuals or events, making replication impractical.

What gives case studies high validity?

In-depth, multi-method investigation allows rich, detailed understanding and triangulation of data.

State a validity limitation of case studies.

Researcher overinvolvement can bias interpretations and overlook broader social structures.

How can quantitative content analysis achieve high reliability?

By using a clear coding system that consistently counts keywords, images, or topics across texts.

Why might qualitative content analysis be less reliable?

Subjective interpretation of themes can vary between researchers if coding categories are vague.

What makes content analysis potentially valid for cultural studies?

It systematically tracks patterns and representations (e.g., gender roles) across media over time.

Name a validity drawback of content analysis.

It may miss hidden meanings or audience reception, limiting insight into actual social effects.

Why is meta-analysis often considered statistically reliable?

It combines data from multiple studies that usually use standardised, quantitative methods.

How can methodological diversity reduce the reliability of a meta-analysis?

Differences in sample, design, or cultural context across studies make combined results harder to replicate.

Give a reason meta-analysis can enhance validity.

Larger aggregated samples allow detection of broader patterns and correlations across time and place.

What validity risk does meta-analysis inherit from original studies?

If source studies had low validity, their flaws carry over into the combined analysis.

How do experiments in natural settings attempt to balance reliability and realism?

They apply structured procedures within real environments, aiming for some control while maintaining authenticity.

Why is reliability still limited in natural experiments?

Uncontrollable variables in real settings make it difficult to replicate exact conditions.

What feature grants natural experiments high ecological validity?

Observation of authentic behaviour in everyday contexts without artificial lab constraints.

Identify a low-validity issue in natural experiments.

Inability to control all variables makes causal conclusions harder and observer effects may occur.

What aspect of the comparative method can make it reliable?

Use of consistent, standardised secondary data (e.g., UN statistics) across different societies.

Why might cultural differences undermine the reliability of the comparative method?

Countries collect data differently or redefine concepts like ‘poverty,’ hindering direct comparison.

Explain how the comparative method can be highly valid for theory testing.

It explores broad social trends across contexts, allowing evaluation of sociological theories without direct interference.

Give one validity criticism of the comparative method from interpretivists.

It lacks depth and may miss cultural nuance, overgeneralising quantitative patterns detached from lived experience.

What is Verstehen

Verstehen is the deep empathetic understanding of human behavior from the perspective of the person doing the action- understand why they are doing something from their point of view