Skepticism, Morality, and Theism Flashcards

Flashcards related to skepticism, morality, and theism, covering topics from ethical theories to moral decision-making.

Define objective morality.

A moral code that exists and is true independently of what any person or society thinks about it.

What is moral nihilism?

The belief that there are no objective moral truths.

What is Moral Relativism?

The claim that moral truths exist but only relative to a specific social framework or code of conduct.

What is Moral Subjectivism?

The claim that moral truths are relative to an individual’s personal opinion or feelings.

What is a major implication of skepticism regarding morality?

Moral equivalence, suggesting all fundamental moral views are equally plausible or implausible.

What problem arises from skepticism regarding moral progress?

It becomes difficult to make sense of genuine moral progress without an objective standard.

How do subjectivism and relativism relate to moral infallibility?

They imply that an individual’s or society’s most basic moral commitments cannot be wrong, as they are the ultimate standard of truth.

What is a limitation of relativism regarding moral critique?

Without objective morality, there is no independent standard to criticize the fundamental principles of a moral code itself.

What contradiction emerges in relativism when actions occur in contexts with conflicting social codes?

Relativism faces contradiction when an action occurs in a context governed by conflicting social codes.

What role could God play in morality?

Metaphysical, epistemological, and motivational.

Explain Divine Command Theory.

If God exists, something is good/right if and only if God approves of it.

What is voluntarism in the context of Divine Command Theory?

Things are good because God approves of them.

What challenge does voluntarism face?

It makes moral truths arbitrarily contingent on God’s will.

What is Ethical Naturalism?

God approves of things because they are good (by their nature).

What is the autonomy of ethics?

The idea that ethics is not dependent on theism.

What motivational role could God play in morality?

Providing necessary incentives (heaven/hell) to be moral.

Define Metaethics:

Questions about nature existence, and knowledge of moral truths fall under the philosophical field of metaethics.

What is the fundamental principle of Utilitarianism?

Consequentialism: actions are right if they bring about good consequences.

What is greatest happiness principle?

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.

According to Utilitarianism, what is considered the only thing desirable as ends?

Pleasure and freedom from pain.

What is impartiality in Utilitarianism?

Each individual's happiness counts equally.

How does Mill differentiate between pleasures?

Higher and lower pleasures based on quality, not just quantity. Pleasures of intellect, feelings, imagination, and moral sentiments are considered more valuable than mere sensations

Justice and rights present an objection to Utilitarianism?

Maximizing overall happiness can sometimes require actions that seem inherently unjust, suggesting utilitarianism might fail to respect individual rights

Distribution and impartiality presents an objection to Utilitarianism?

It questions whether everyone’s happiness should count equally

Complexity and demandingness presents an objection to Utilitarianism?

It requires complex calculations of consequences for every action, questioning about how to determine outcomes and measure different kinds of pleasure.

What is a good will, according to Kant?

The only thing that is good without limitation.

How does Kant describe an action done from duty?

It has its moral worth not in the result it brings about, but in the maxim (the principle of volition) according to which the action is determined.

Define Hypothetical imperative:

Command an action as a means to some other end that you have adopted; a rational agent must either adopt the required means or give up the end.

Define Categorical Imperative:

Commands an action as necessary in self, without reference to any other end; represent the necessity of the action regarded as necessary in itself without a purpose.

State Kant’s Humanity Formulation of the Categorical Imperative

Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.

What is the doctrine of doing and allowing (DDA)?

Posits moral distinction between doing harm and allowing harm; suggests that it is worse to do something that causes harm than to merely allow harm to occur.

Define negative right.

Rights against interference.

Define positive rights.

Rights to goods or services.

What are prima facie duties?

Characteristics or aspects of an action that ‘tend to be” one’s duty, based on definite circumstances or relations between individuals.

Name key examples of prima facie duties.

Promises/fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-improvement, non-maleficence (not harming others).

What is an actual duty?

What one ought to do when multiple prima facie duties conflict.

Define Hedonism:

The view that what makes a life go well is happiness, understood primarily as pleasure and the absence of pain.

What is preference-hedonism?

Views pleasure as experiences that are wanted when experienced, and pains as experiences that are unwanted when experienced, with intensity correlating to how much they are wanted or unwanted.

What does the Experience Machine thought experiment suggest?

People would not plug into a machine providing only desired experiences, indicating that things other hand just how experience feel from the inside matter.

Describe Desire-Satisfaction Theories of well-being.

What makes a life go well for someone is the fulfillment of their desires throughout their life.

What is the difference between an unrestricted and success theory?

Unrestricted considers the fulfillment of all desires and success theory focuses only on desires about one’s own life.

List some examples featured on an objective list.

Knowledge, loving relationships, pleasure itself.

What is Intersubjective Meaning In Life?

Involves active engagement in projects of worth.

What is imperialism in morality?

The view that morality requires allocating time and resources without special preference based on personal relationships or self-interest.

What is partialism in morality?

The thesis that is morally correct (at least permissible, sometimes obligatory) to favor those to whom one has a special relationship, provided one is not under a direct or indirect duty to be impartial.

What is agent-related partialism?

Giving special weight to one’s own plans and projects because they are one’s own.

List 3 forms of partiality that are considered problematic

Racism, Sexism, Nepotism, Clanism, Patriotism, Planetism

List 3 situations requiring impartiality

Taking on specific roles like civil servant, personnel manager, examiner, university officer, judge

What is self-directed paternalism?

Assigning special weight to one’s own private interests and satisfactions

What is philophobic partialism?

According special consideration to loved ones (friends, family, spouse, children) because they are ‘beloved’ or ‘dear’

Define AI

Artificial computational systems capable of complex goal-oriented behavior

How can AI be used in Manipulation

With deepfakes, the evidence can be mistaken and targeted advertising

How does AI affect education?

Advanced tools can generate decent essays quickly and may be impossible to detect as a result of the chatbot, creating a challenge to assess student learning.

What is Algorithmic Bias?

Human decision-makers are biased and machines are trained on data containing bias replicate it; cannot eliminate human judgement

What are key factors when questioning machine ethics?

Preserve passengers, save the most people, and prioritize rule followers.

What does the harm principle state in regards to the prima facie case for legalization?

The liberal society justification for limiting adult freedom is only harm to others

What is the main argument for Harm to Others in regards to the case for prohibition?

Local community: degradation of public space, social isolation, increased violence (users/dealers), impact on children/family, danger to minors, threat to community values; political community: degradation of public space, increased emergency service costs, “free-riding”

What are harms of prohibition?

Consequentialist view that ending prohibition could save billions of dollars, convicted diminished life opportunities, local makes drug use rickier, and political high enforcement costs

According to Wolf, why is the life of a faultlessly moral person not a life we should want for ourselves or others?

Extreme moral excellence is incompatible with non-moral goods valuable for a good life

What is an argument for why a saint’s life would be considered problematic?

Extreme respectfulness might make enjoying satirical comedy difficult; Would prioritize charitable endeavors over activities like watching movies, going out, or adventurous trips

Describe a loving saint in the argument of why a saint’s life is problematic

Gets pleasure from moral projects; acts morally without sense of sacrifice; enjoys the saintly life but fails to properly value non-moral goods

Describe a rational saint in the argument of why a saint’s life is problematic

Disposition closer to average; feels sacrifice (giving money, missing pleasures) for moral ends; acts morally because they recognize morality’s importance and strive for perfection; unable to pursue fulfilling projects or activities (ex: musical talent) because they come to second more morally important activities; always responding to needs of others, pursuing no own projects

Why might utilitarians not endorse universal sainthood?

Leads to shallow appreciation of life’s goods, ex valuing art only for happiness promotion; goes against why we actually value things, intrinsic value, understanding the human condition

What are Mill’s suggestions for the issues faced during Hedonism?

Mill suggests that everything we desire is ultimately desired because it will either directly or indirectly bring about happiness. Mill also argued that there are different qualities of pleasure, “higher” and “lower” pleasures, where higher pleasures provide a greater quality of happiness, even if they come with frustration.

What are two of the issues faces during Hedonism?

The paradox of Hedonism highlights that directly pursuing happiness often backfires The argument suggests that if happiness were the only thing that directly makes us better off, it would be rational to single-mindedly pursue it and the experience machine based only on false beliefs

What is the problem the challenges the "experience machine / happiness based on false beliefs?"

The thought experiment involves an “experience machine” that could give you any experiences you desire, providing a life of perfect simulated happiness. The problem is that if Hedonism is true, then the overall quality of a life depends entirely on the amount of happiness and unhappiness it contains.

What are the 2 theories for the Desire Satisfaction View?

The Unrestricted theory claims that what is best for someone is what would best fulfill all of their desires throughout their life, even those about strangers or events unknown to them and the success theory, which appeals only to our desires about our own lives.

What are 2 Challenges to the Desire Satisfaction View?

Addiction- a problem arises when considering whether fulfilling any desire contributes to making a life go better, especially strong desires that one might prefer not to have. For example unwanted desires and bizarre desires that are pointless and immoral.