regeneration

geography paper 2

case study: middlesborough - declining town

having dealt with the consequences of deindustrialisation since the 1980s, around 20,000 locals have left since 1990 + 2008 global recession worsened the decline = businesses close + large companies left + no costumers - local unemployment rate is 13% (uk avg 4.3%) = plummeting local income - can’t relocate or switch jobs. avg house price £140k (uk avg £290k). lower life expectancy, abandoned streets, high crime/anti-social behaviour rates - specifically, flytipping/littering = impact on quality of life and health + safety and lack of opportunities = low motivation for academic achievement - pushes away families. 2024 regeneration (leveling up - £20mil) aims to improve high streets, healthcare, transport and education, and create more affordable housing. other projects include middlesborough station, eton college 6th form + new homes in grove hill (sink estate)

case study: tottenham riots 1985 - broadwater farm (council estate)

following the death of cynthia barrett (her son was falsely accused - heart failure while her house was innocently searched) + police officer keith blakelock (had a role in her death). police were accused of institutional racism, which lead to violence between police and youth = police maintained presence on the estate (questioning/arresting 400+). MPs letwin + booth urged thatcher (PM) to ignore reports that stated “rioting was the result of social deprivation and racism”. gov. officials recommending a £10mil communities program to tackle inner-city issues + grow black-owned businesses BUT revoked as letwin claimed it would only grow “disco + drugs”. - apologised in 2015, tension remains but the estate had improved, e.g. £250 million regeneration programme 2024

case study: tottenham riots 2011 (lead to the london riots)

followed the murder of local black man, mark duggan, (shot dead by police in august). initially, a peaceful protest was held but rumours of an injured young girl fueled further tension, so rioting and looting ensued - sparked further riots in london districts (e.g. brixton) with many experiencing widespread looting, violence, and arson. this greatly increased police presence + social media awareness (unlike previous riots - specifically blackberry messenger) - so info was spread and looters could communicate quicker. london CCTV also helped to identify looters. ethnic makeup of rioters was 39% black, and 29% white - uproar of black community

case study: cambridge science park LOCAL GOVERNMENT

• oldest science park in the UK (1970)

• concentrates on technology + science (e.g. biomedical research) related businesses (100+)

• has “excellent transport connections” - located near m11, covering 50 hectares + has high speed rail links - 1 hour from london + close to stansted airport

• encourages sustainable travel such as cycling (27% of commuters) + carsharing (11%).

• employs over 6500 workers, built to develop the quaternary industry - all nearby research sectors + companies could be in one location = cuts transport costs

• examples of companies include worldpay, napp, jaygage

advantages:

• historic city, attractive, modern + spacious site

• skilled, large workforce nearby - from cambridge uni

• lots of greenery - relaxing + has amenities nearby (gym, nursery, restaurant)

• transport links + links to other high tech companies (attractive to youth for work experience)

• cheap land for expanding businesses

disadvantages:

• house demand + prices soaring

• increasing congestion + taking over green space

• mainly graduate jobs - so young people may struggle for jobs + unskilled jobs aren’t filled

functions of a location

the function of a location can affect the employment opportunities, businesses, industries and the built environment of a given area - they can be:

• administrative - places that make decisions over the organisation of infrastructure + economic activity of the surrounding area e.g. london’s influence over the south east

• commercial - a location with a strong business influence, where the bases of many TNCs + businesses

• retail - an area with attractive retail facilities (markets, shopping centers) - main source of income/employment for locals

• industrial - an area whose economy + reputation is mainly based on its industrial capacity e.g. birmingham (known as the black country - iron + steel works)

sectors of employment

• primary - raw materials e.g. fishing, mining, farming (essential but in decline) - labour intensive = risks to physical health

• secondary - manufacturing of raw materials - in factories = usually higher pay than ^, but workers may face exploitation (long hours, dangerous chemicals, hazardous environment)

• tertiary - provision of services e.g. education, managing businesses, selling products = higher pay, but is often office based, regulated hours, monotonous

• quaternary - technology-based employment e.g.g high tech scientific research, finance, IT, programming = requires skills + education + experience + can be office-based

• quinary - top executives or officials in fields such as government, science, healthcare, media

clarke-fisher model

describes the stages a country may progress through as they develop economically

• pre-industrial - majority of the population work in the primary sector + few in secondary = may be due to a lack of infrastructure or investment which stops the establishment of factories + manufacturing

• industrial - primary sector declines as land is taken up by manufacturing + importing is made easier - usually rural-urban migration occurs in this period, as they seek to improve their quality of life

• post-industrial - significant decrease of primary sector, + gradual decline of secondary jobs - rapid increase in tertiary + quaternary sector - due to demand for entertainment, holidays + technology

case study: brontë country - rural regeneration

haworth, pennines - region in the west yorkshire/east lancashire.

• many visitors travel to experience the “bleakness + desolation” that inspired the writing of the brontë sisters e.g. jane eyre + wuthering heights

• the fair trade way takes visitors through the countryside + historical sites that appear in the books

• other tourist attractions include the keighley bus museum, worth valley railways, the pennine bridleway = horseriding + mountain biking, village of saltaire = UNESCO world heritage site.

• some farms here used EU grants to diversify their land + create specialised products e.g. shipbridge farm = wedding venue for “creative + bespoke” weddings with bnb, animal holdings, cottages, + glamping tents

case study: heathrow’s 3rd runway - infrastructure investment

heathrow is one of the busiest airports in the world - “need to expand capacity to grow uk’s economy” as uk loses out on tourism + competition. project is predicted to take 10 years + cost $17.7 billion - would act as a “catalyst for economic growth” + improve global connectivity

for:

• would increase flights from 480,000 per year to 720,000 = efficient

• heathrow already has good transport links so would be easy to create capacity

• would create over 100,000 new jobs

against:

• would increase air pollution massively due to increased air travel + road journeys to the airport

• would potentially destroy local wildlife parks, paving over 4 rivers + diverting a 5th into landfill = destroys habitats + impacts water quality

• would involve the demolition of homes, rerouting m25 motorway, increase local noise pollution due to new flight paths → interrupting the lives of communities

• project would compromise the uk’s commitment to net-zero emissions by 2050 + heathrow airport would become the biggest emitter of co2 in the country

plans are being proposed - plans to begin construction in summer 2025

case study: the eden project - rural regeneration

the eden project is an eco-visitor attraction in cornwall, aims to conserve ecosystems, develop awareness of sustainability and explore the interconnections between all living things. the eden project opened in 2001 - introducing 2 large conservatories “biomes” - humid tropics + warm temperate + a 3rd planned in 2007 for sustainability = over 100,000 plants representing 5000 species = huge potential for tourism + was funded by (inter)national agencies e.g. millennium commission, eu, southwest england regional development agency = £140mil + built on a derelict china clay pit.

benefits of the eden project:

• high visitor numbers = more visitor spending - multiplier effect (avg. £150 spent in cornwall per visitor) - has attracted 23 mil visitors since its opening + was the 3rd most visited attraction in the uk, within months of its opening

• demand for holiday accommodation has doubled + people spending longer (16 weeks → 36) + locals own most of the cottages so they benefit as well

• has provided 400 full-time jobs - in total 600 equivalent with part time + seasonal - all locals + 75% were previously unemployed + 40% are over 50 - reducing unemployment rates by 6%

• sources all food + drink locally - where possible = supports local farmers + companies

• has lead to establishment of further attractions e.g. maritime museum + tate at st ives

• 2003 - 80% of cornwall’s businesses felt the eden project had improved the cornish economy + their lives

however, the eden project has created some issues:

• congestion - visitor levels have produced huge traffic congestion levels + some believe journeys have increased by 30 minutes

• pollution + air quality - has become the major source for pollution in the area due to majority of visitors arriving by road, despite having a bus link + parking space for 3500 cars = generates co2

case study: duke’s icecream - farm diversification

launched a premium icecream business on his family’s dairy farm (300+ cows) in ni - using quality ingredients to attract locals + sourcing from local suppliers e.g. working with bakers for brownies + caramel → fast-expanding due to word of mouth + social media, with the icecream served at weddings/events. this was a passion project, rather than for money “do something you enjoy” + introduced wild camping on 20 acres of unused woodland, bringing customers + easy to manage. the family remains committed to the dairy farm, emphasising on the cows’ comfort + environmental sustainability + energy.

case study: HS2 - infrastructure investment (national government)

hs2 is a high-speed railway which aimed to make travel between london and major cities in england quicker + easier, creating jobs, boosting the economy, reducing congestion + combat the north-south divide - while travelling up to 220mph. it hopes to cut travel between birmingham to london from 81mins to 50mins, for instance.

first estimates for cost were about £33bil, now predicted to cost up to £106.6bil + most legs were cancelled (e.g. to leeds or manchester) → only goes from london to birmingham. this means the project has not been successful in combating the north-south divide as these legs were scrapped.

environmentalists critique the project for cutting into areas of natural beauty e.g. the chilterns, and some argue the funds should be directed elsewhere e.g. education, healthcare

case study: london docklands - regeneration LOCAL GOVERNMENT

once was part of the world’s largest port, but docks closed due to deindustrialisation + global shift → area became derelict + in poverty by 1980s. regeneration began with government assistance - forming the london docklands development corporation (LDDC - unpopular) + established:

• an enterprise zone for businesses and for attracting visitors

• the canary wharf project - established a 2nd central business district

• lddc constructed dockland lights railway + extended the london underground’s jubilee line → to improve transport

since 1990s, docklands’ population has doubled, with the old docks being used as marinas + watersports centres - revival of docklands improved nearby rundown areas as transport links attract commuters. london docklands has become one of the world’s leading global hubs for internet + many businesses locating here e.g. the independent + LINX

however, the lddc is criticised for favouring elitist, luxury developments rather than affordable housing - ignoring the needs for the local community. canary wharf also struggled due to the “property slump” - developers found themselves “saddled with property that they were unable to sell or let”. docklands redevelopment also had some negatives as it resulted in a property boom → consequent rice in housing prices, creating tensions between the newcomers + long-term/previous residents - complained they were being “squeezed out”. has also lead to luxury executive flats constructed alongside rundown public housing estates = divide

impacts of the 2012 olympic games - in newham, london

• introduced around 2800 new homes - not affordable for newham’s poorest

• london legacy development corporation - lowered the target of 50% affordable housing to just 31%

• almost 5000 jobs were removed to make space for the olympics in newham - ¼ of families living in overcrowded housing - in 2015 there were over 14,000 households on the waiting list for council housing

• redevelopment of the lea river decontaminated the land + improved local health

• olympicrfs attracted £9bil in investment - with most going towards transport + new facilities e.g. aquatic centre

• area transformed from a “scrapyard” to a “green playground” - improving local quality of life

case study: liverpool - local regeneration LOCAL GOVERNMENT

port city, previously in the manufacturing + commerce industry which employed most locals. this attracted inward migrants from asia + the caribbean. however, it had began to decline in the 1930s due to:

• containerisation

• docks too small

• decline in shipping products to americas + more trade within europe - so docks became abandoned + derelict

this lead to population decline + a cycle of deprivation due to unemployment rates increasing + toxteth race riots in 1981, merseyside development corporation reclaimed area for housing + new jobs

top-down local regeneration schemes - focused on culture:

• 1988 albert dock - flagship project, originally derelict = redevelopment provided good quality housing, shopping for tourists - attracts 4 million visitors every year

• tate art gallery

• maritime museum

• the beatles story

these focused on the middle class + tourism (around 6mil every year) + improved the appearance of liverpool. however, it was not effective in improving quality of life for locals - as they cannot afford the new housing + still lack jobs

bottoms-up approach for local regeneration:

• project rosemary - a new hospital, primarily for women + babies, new housing + a cake factory = 200 jobs + had government support - but still struggled with a declining population + little tourism

• 1999 LVision = works with stakeholders + private sector companies e.g. jp morgan = the waterfront designated a UNESCO world heritage site, tourist friendly + cultural quarter - was funded by government to attract inward investment = spent £2bil and improved air quality, appearance, housing, green space + £ 9 million terminal built on princess dock + pier head is being revitalised by the leeds-liverpool canal extension

• 2004 - first population increase since 1937

• liverpool won capital of culture 2008 - the celebrations attracted £4billion investment to continue regeneration + £800 million of additional income + increased both national + international tourism = created 14,700 jobs

• liverpool one shopping centre - aims to create urban change (chavasse park) + created more bike routes + helped to win the capital of culture = 5th most popular shopping centre behind london, glasgow etc.

place character - features of an area

endogenous factors (originate from within a place + is local) may be:

• land use

• topography

• physical geography

• infrastructure - essential services such as roads, water supply, sewers, education, law enforcement, emergency services, broadband, parks, libraries

• demographic - age, gender, ethnicity + population size

• built environment - architecture of an area - contemporary, aging, historical

• location - elevation, distance to coast

• economics - in debt, growth market, aging industry

exogenous factors (originate from outside + provide links to other places) - flows of:

• people

• money/investment

• resources

• ideas

characteristics of an area may change due to

• physical - proximity to large cities + economic zones encourages economic development

• reputation - attractiveness of an area influences funding it receives

• infrastructure - roads, railways, airports allow the migration of people + goods to previously inaccessible locations

• competition - TNCs relocate to the best regions (new investment + large labour pool) but better competition may encourage businesses + investment away from a location

• role of planning (government + stakeholders) - restructure economy e.g. increasing student numbers, filling skill shortages, becoming self-reliant on energy + food production. stakeholders may try to conserve an area by limiting new development

• economy - function may change, between administrative, commercial, retail or industrial

change can be measured by considering

• land use changes - reduction in abandoned land, industrial - residential ratio

• employment trends - changes to employment types + unemployment rate

• demographic changes - inward/outward migration

• economic productivity

OR you can use the Index of Multiple Deprivation - measures income, employment, education, health, crime, living environment, housing + services

inequality - can be caused by several factors, including:

• occupational hazards - manual labourers earn less + have a lower life expectancy (physical strain)

• income - pay inequality, with primary earning the least on average - usually seasonal + quaternary/quinary earning the most, mainly due to skills/education required for these roles

• life expectancy + general health - correlation between income + life expectancy due to type of employment, affordability of healthy food, stereotypical lifestyles (workers may adopt lifestyle choices e,g, drinking, smoking to meet social norms)

• educational achievement - strongly linked to income - wealthy can afford private school (higher quality) + university while low income cannot afford further education/may drop out early to support family = can’t attain a higher salary = can’t be in skilled employment = continues to be low income

large inequalities in these areas may indicate a need for improvement/policy for government

case study: liverpool one - retail-led regeneration

• 1960s - liverpool was the 3rd most visited shopping centre in the uk

• 2002 - 17th most visited

• 2008 - revival + potential catchment of 1.8 million within a 30 min drive - 5th most visited

liverpool one - one of liverpool’s largest flagship regeneration projects → began in the late 90s, built when city council decided to redevelop the area surrounding the paradise bus street station = “paradise project”.

• initially, development had multiple uses - transport, retail, warehousing + some housing

• city council appointed grosvenor group - a development plan was created over the next few years, with negotiations from multiple companies (stakeholders) - began in 2004 and opened in 2008 = 170 stores, with leisure, offices + residential spaces

brand essence: incoming stakeholders don’t appeal to current residents, but area is becoming more diverse in ethnicity, class, lifestyles = inwards migration of more affluent students (studentification + gentrification) + opening of leisure facilities + businesses appeals to a group with a large disposable income → forcing the poor to move out due to rising house prices + nostalgia of culture + uniqueness prior to rebranding

brandscape: the outcome of rebranding → city is deemed equal or better than its regional competitors but it has experienced some cultural diffusion, but due to culture-led regeneration, it can still promote its distinct culture + attracts 8-10 million visitors annually

infrastructure

generally very expensive - requires government funding + public-private partnerships where government provides the majority of capital while private companies fulfill + manage plans. different gov departments may be involved in regeneration projects:

• locals councils aim to improve their borough to attract new businesses, improve/increase housing or regenerate a declining area

• department for culture, media + sport markets uk’s image abroad - contributed to london olympic park regeneration, and commonwealth projects in manchester, glasgow + birmingham in 2022

• DEFRA - aims to improve declining rural villages, protect eroding coastlines + improve the agricultural industry

• uk trade + investment - supports uk businesses + tries to attract fdi

case study: king’s heath vs collingtree - my place of study

collingtree - relatively rich area, considered one of the richest neighbourhoods in northampton, with high levels of employment and almost all residents gaining gcse qualifications. 2008 - collingtree went under a major urban extension of 2000 houses, where 35% of these were made affordable to reintroduce the working class into the area + reduce the divide (due to a lack of jobs in areas like fast food). collingtree benefits from easy access to a45, m1 and the train station and average house prices are around £530,000. in june 2023, collingtree experienced a total of 23 crime incidents.

king’s heath - considered a deprived area, with low to average levels of employment. king’s heath faces health inequality, specifically the heart of the area, and experienced 284 crimes in june of 2023. this could be due to the below-average literacy levels, where residents turn to crime as a means of income. there are plans for regeneration, including the almost finished king’s heath station - increasing transport links, and the stakeholder, northampton partnership homes, with a programme of planned investment to homes + neighbourhoods to combat the depravity. average house prices in king’s heath are around £280,000.

case study: northampton regeneration projects - my place of study

• market square regeneration - aimed to rejuvenate the area by providing permanent market stalls for traders, high quality seating, flexible event space, and a new water feature = attempt to create a “space for everybody”, that is both accessible + attractive to the community, but also to new professionals + tourists and will eventually lead to the regeneration of surrounding buildings. funded by the future high street fund (£8,460,000) + £2mil from S106/CIL. however, the temporary movement of market stalls, during construction, has disgruntled traders claimed as “death row” for their businesses - with many not returning for the opening in 2024 = negative reputation

• waterfront + new university campus - aims to secure the future of the university as a “leading, higher education institution that offers a unique, student experience” + hopes to attract potential students, and regenerate the waterside + town centre. costs estimated to be around £330 million

• cultural quarter - construction on the previously derelict heritage asset (24 guildhall road) → plans to be transformed into an innovative + creative cultural space for the arts community = partnership between west northamptonshire council + NN contemporary art - aiming to enhance the space to facilitate new art studios + a contemporary art gallery space. funded by the towns fund + west northamptonshire council = £3,250,000. hopes to attract prospective visitors, tourists, art collectors + improve opportunities for local artists

• market walk - set to undergo a vast transformation as “renowned food hall + leisure area” by developer stack + west northamptonshire council, paid by the towns fund (£4,175,000) + £8mil from stack. aims to revitalise the prominent space, while introduce a new leisure + entertainment destination, creating a vibrant social hub for all of the community, including a “diverse selection of independent street food traders, bars, games, seating + a main stage for live music performances” - aims to open in autumn of 2025

• new daventry train station by sustainable transport northamptonshire - leader, youth harry burr, launched the campaign for the reopening of a passenger line - aims to “connect as many people as possible in the most environmentally sustainable way we can” - cost estimated to be around £20mil, party funded by the government

regeneration has not been successful as of yet, as most projects have only just been established + need time to see the impact

northampton’s ethnic makeup over time (2021)

ethnic makeup (%)	northampton	england + wales avg.
white	87.6	81.7
asian	4.6	9.3
black	4.2	4.0
mixed/other	3.6	5.0

northampton’s age structure over time (2020)

age (%)	northampton	england + wales avg.
0-15	20.5	19.1
16-64	61.2	62.2
65+	18.3	18.6

northampton’s function over time

population growth between 2002 - 2020 - increased by around 120,000 residents + predicted to continue this increase, which could be influenced by the northampton borough council’s economic growth strategy 2020-2025, established by the uk government + aims to introduce significant changes in the town centre to revive businesses + community. the economic growth from this project will create new homes + job opportunities + introduce high quality broadband, 5g infrastructure, smart city technology, clean energy measures to reduce carbon + use data to make northampton a digital city.

transport links will also influence northampton’s function over time, e.g. the introduction of the north-west relief road will link the a428 harlestone road with the a5199 welford road → housing expansion + addressing congestion (new crossing on the river valley). northampton’s connection to the m1 makes it more accessible to areas like london, nottingham, sheffield, derby + leeds + m6 connects it to birmingham = COMMUTER TOWN, “distribution centre of england”.

northampton’s shoe industry had a global influence, initially in the 17th century and expanding rapidly in the 19th century as mechanisation occurred, yet gradually decreased due to deindustrialisation + the global shift → only left traditional factories for higher end shoes e.g. crockett + jones - town has been distanced from its history with shoemaking - redirected in 1968, designated a New Town to accommodate london overspill + provide regional growth + development

northampton’s history as a market town dates back to the 12th century

what is a sink estate?

a british term used for a council housing estate with high levels of social issues - primarily crime, making these areas undesirable + unattractive for redevelopers + potential homeowners e.g. broadwater farm, tottenham or barracks, glasgow or detroit, usa. sink estates require regeneration to rebrand their image + attract people to live and work there - improves local economy, reduces crime rates and improves opportunities for residents

what creates a sink estate?

past governments may be at fault by not providing the necessary funding into the economy, healthcare, welfare, education etc. for their people - citizens turn to crime. the rise in property prices due to inflation, limited housing supply, high interest rates + covid19 has helped in creating sink estates.

what is a gated community?

a typically expensive residential area, that is restricted - only allowing homeowners inside for “security + privacy” → this creates a class divide between the working class, vulnerable to crime, outside the gates and the upper class - typically seen in usa but in uk also e.g. wentworth estate, previous home of influential people such as elton john + agatha christie.

gated communities need regeneration to bring back working class people into the area through cheaper house prices, but the same accessibility to high quality education, healthcare, infrastructure → someone needs to work unskilled/undesirable jobs, such as retail or fast food, to encourage locals to shop nearby + stabilise the economy.

what is gentrification?

the idea that the local, unique character of a previously poor, urban area is changed + rebranded when wealthier people move in, attracting new businesses + improving housing quality - while displacing the current inhabitants + their businesses e.g. london docklands

what is a commuter village?

a settlement with the main function of commuting - within commuting distance of a rich, urban area with a thriving economy + job market - where residents live in the commuter settlement + travel elsewhere for work.

this provides them access to higher incomes while paying for affordable housing in the settlement e.g. northampton as a london overspill or eaglesham, scotland. however, this negatively impacts the local economy as jobs are left empty and little money goes towards the area → so goods + services remain unfunded + unimproved.

this can eventually lead to a spiral of decline, particularly for residents who have lived + worked in this area for generations.

commuter villages require regeneration to attract their high-skilled residents to work in their town, revive their local economies and reduce the variations in economic + social inequality → can attract skilled homeowners + rebrand the area

case study: cornwall - destination tourism

cornwall required regeneration due to:

• deindustrialisation (previously mainly primary employment) = rural poverty,

• seasonal income from tourists = unreliable, part time + poorly paid + rising unemployment rate

• farming has decreased due to cheaper global exports + power of supermarkets

• isolated due to a lack of transport links + infrastructure + location (sw) → far from the “core” of the uk (london - leeds - manchester) - lack of services

• aging population (inward-migration of older retirees) + low youth population density = less working population + less paying taxes for pensiosn

• “brain drain” - youth leave the area for better income + employment opportunities (cornwall considered deprived in these areas) as the health services + education are considered good

aimed to use “destination tourism” - where people visit a place for a single attraction, regeneration projects,funded by the eu objective 1999 - aims to reduce socioeconomic differences across the eu, include:

• the eden project - economic success yet environmental harm

• individuals e.g. rick stein’s seafood restaurant in padstow = attracts tourists, area now referred to as “padstein”

• expansion of newquay airport - accept flights from uk cities e.g. leeds, manchester + edinburgh + gatwick/stansted airports → reduces isolation

• extreme watersports academy - targets younger age group, offering courses on surfing, wave skiing + kite surfing

• jamie oliver’s fifteen restaurant - seats 100 guests + trains local youth (30 disadvantaged 16-24 year olds) on catering skills

• local universities (exeter + falmouth) combined to create the combined universities in cornwall (CUC) → helps graduates set up businesses, secure jobs in knowledge based companies - reducing the brain drain e.g. sixixis, neutralize

• but south west film studios (cost £5.7mil) failed - expected to create 200 jobs + boost economy - yet the company went bankrupt in 2004 as the owner was arrested for fraud

infrastructure regeneration - benefits + costs

benefits or infrastructure regeneration	costs of infrastructure regeneration
high volume of jobs created - especially construction	some large-scale projects can be risky as prices can increase greatly with inflation or cost of supplies may change e.g. hs2
improves transport links → more migration + trade → economic growth	most infrastructure projects are not sustainable - usually due to the amount of concrete (large co2 output)

housing demand - inequality in housing accessibility, limited supply of affordable housing + a growing population

• lack of social housing - due to thatcher’s “right to buy” scheme where social housing was bought by occupants for less than market value (millions of social houses sold) → too few houses built to replace them - now people who would be placed in social housing (owned by government) are place in private housing (expensive rent → not affordable for low income → government have to pay billions on housing benefits - 2022 spent £23.4bil on housing benefits)

• large numbers of empty derelict housing - mainly inner city, where brownfield land is more expensive to develop than greenfield - private companies/investors may buy this land while waiting for prices to increase

• overseas investors e.g. russian oligarchs - investor visas attract wealthy individuals to buy property in the uk, usually left empty or rented out

• increase in affluent population who can afford a second home to rent out as an investment with increased property prices + high rent → harder to own property

recent property frameworks

these aim to increase supply by setting housing targets for local councils to provide = rapid new-build development which hope to regenerate suburban towns, encourage migration + economic growth:

• often in suburbs, due to large, cheap expanse of land available in close proximity to the job opportunities in the city centre

• developers have to provide a variety of houses, so these developments contain a mix of properties - to buy, rent or shared-ownership of all sizes

• these new large estates provide a large volume of new houses, but don’t always provide services e.g. schools, doctors, grocers → stress on existing services

• heavy criticism over a development’s sustainability - habitat loss + environmental degradation of greenfield land, air + noise pollution

housing construction - benefits/costs

benefits of housing construction	costs of housing construction
increases housing supply - major issue in the uk	greenfield development is more profitable that developing on brownfield sites - so habitat loss + environmental degradation
creates jobs in construction	lots of housing classed as affordable is not
build a variety of housing to accommodate for all e.g. apartments for youth, family homes	limited projects to increase/improve social housing → still not enough for the public

housing - gentrification in the inner city

benefits of gentrification + high-value property → encourages more inner-city development projects by constructors. the high cost of clearing + preparing brownfield sites can be compensated by building high value apartments. regeneration projects aim to attract wealthy investors to spend money or establish business - rely on “trickle-down” theory:

• investor spends money in services + local businesses, who benefit from increased sales

• workers may spend their increased disposable income on other local businesses = increased revenue shared between multiple businesses

• both the investor + businesses will pay more tax, so local council can spend more on services (schools, doctors + infrastructure) + improvements (more frequent road sweeps, improving local parks) from which everyone in the area benefits

however, this is not always the case → while gentrification creates potential economic growth as the wealth of a few trickles down into the local society + improve surroundings + new facilities may be constructed = benefits all BUT lack of variety of housing - all high value apartments so gentrification schemes don’t benefit first time buyers or families + typically don’t built social housing → still shortages

rural regeneration

rural regions can be the most deprived areas in the uk - due to the lack of opportunities for youth in education + employment, social isolation of minority groups + physical isolation from services + public transport + deindustrialisation

to regenerate, they may develop services, improve transport links + grow the economy

national governance - policy making → can strengthen or weaken the national/local economy

• migration - a government may encourage international migration to fill gaps in unemployment or attract investors through investor visa schemes - may restrict migration to avoid the strain on public services

• deregulation of markets - governments remove their control over an industry or service → private companies purchase state-owned businesses or competition between businesses accelerates

• creating business environments - creation of specialised parks can encourage businesses to move to a region or new start up businesses. investors may be domestic or international, depending on the attraction to the region → workforce available, technology available, reputation

measuring success of regeneration

• economic regeneration regeneration can be best measured by comparing employment rates, the local economy’s size, industrial productivity - prior to + after regeneration

• social improvements may involve increased life expectancy, literacy rates, decreased applicants for social housing, reductions in social tension or changes to lifestyle (smoking, obesity, type of food)

• improvements to the living environment include reduced air pollution, abandoned land utilised or increase in green open space + sustainability may be measured in the volume of carbon dioxide emitted, proportion of greenfield vs brownfield used, number of jobs created + how long the scheme is expected to benefit locals

case study: boscombe - coastal regeneration

as of 2021, boscombe has a population of around 20,000, high crime rates (185 in jan 2025), lower life expectancy (77.9 vs 87.5 in west highcliffe, dorset), originally a seaside holiday town → rise in package holidays + affordable/accessible air travel = less people visiting boscombe

due to boscombe’s location (on the coast), most jobs are seasonal so cannot support a local economy year-round = experiences high levels of unemployment + deprivation - 63% of population are considered deprived in one aspect or more (2021 census). only 30% of people own their homes vs 52% across the uk due to the presence of hmos, e.g. dave wells property (established in 1985) + poor quality housing due to a fall in investment into the built environment during its decline in the 70s/80s. affordable hmos attracted disadvantaged, low-income groups (migrants + students) and the vulnerable (elderly, sick, substance-abusers + benefit claimants). over 60 drug rehabilitation centres constructed to combat this issue. regeneration is mainly top-down approach by the bournemouth borough council

regeneration projects include:

• the boscombe overstrand + refurbishment of the pier - part of the boscombe spa development plan 2006 (funded by sale of honeycombe chine car park)→ successful in rejuvenating the seafront (aim) - created a new restaurant space, luxury beach pods (hemingway design) → cost £4mil - SUCCESS +

• joy cafe - non-profit project, described as a “lush little cafe with a big heart for building life-giving community” - has been effective in regenerating boscombe’s sense of community, providing cheap meals + organising community events + uses a pay it forward scheme → located in a deprived area, churchill gardens - regenerating on a local scale - SUCCESS + supported by local residents

• art trail - each project reflects local ideas + andy kirkby’s unique style (won a £74,000 commission) → free outdoor source of entertainment, enriching art appreciation with a recurring marine theme of fish, boats + diving helmets - has increased tourism → preserving boscombe’s history as a coastal resort - SUCCESS

• the surf reef - also part of the 2006 plan - established europe’s first multipurpose reef + aimed to rebrand boscombe as a surf resort - cost £3mil → but considered to have failed as the project was “never really finished” and placed in the wrong direction - “you may as well have thrown £3mil into the sea” - former labour councillor, ben grower + surfers claimed it made them a laughing stock - FAILURE

• + allotments, volleyball on the beach, police box - less significant

regeneration → amount of students achieving A* – C at GCSE including Mathematics and English has risen from 40% to 61%, for instance → success

overall, regeneration in boscombe has been somewhat successful - very successful on the seafront but still requires further regeneration in the town centre + neighbourhoods like churchill gardens. (2021 - towns fund (national))

case study: plymouth - coastal regeneration

historically, part of a naval city (devon) + faced severe bombin in ww2 - lead to newly designed “open boulevards + pedestrianised streets” → seen as innovative, marking a new era of civic design - began to attract visitors BUT declining economy since 1960s, as shipyards reduced in size + regional competition (portsmouth) for ship repairs + services, and plymouth is remote → harder to attract investment

redevelopment project - vision for plymouth includes:

• a new shopping complex in city centre = retail-led regeneration + leisure shopping attracts people, creates jobs (drake circus) - but some argued drake circus’ success has lead to downfall in local businesses

• rebranded plymouth science park - linked with 2 universities + a taching hospital which sttracted companies (marine engineering, medicine, renewable energy)

• proposed sport/leisure partnership with plymouth argyle football clb - for a new stadium complex to include a cinema, hotel + ice rink

royal william yard, plymouth - one of plymouth’s most significant buildings - has been restored over a span of 20 years to reimage the former royal navy supply + include 200+ apartments, shops + restaurants

role of local government in regeneration

aims to receive local support (trade unions, local chambers of commerce) for their regeneration schemes → but can’t make everyone happy = tension between conservationists and redevelopers. make an area attractive for inward investment

role of regional government in regeneration

think about what would benefit the region as a whole - but this is typically south leaning in the uk e.g. hs2 → focus on infrastructure, planning + decision-making

lived experience

the knowledge, feelings + understanding gained from the personal experience of a certain place → varies due to factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, race, religion, level of deprivation or length of residency. lived experience has an impact on engagement - whether political or communal. place attachment is the bond between an individual or community + a location

engagement can be influenced by…

• age - especially if combined with length of residence in a place, young people often feel less attached due to globalisation + social media

• length of residency - new migrants + students may have weaker attachments than longstanding locals

• levels of deprivation - higher levels may be associated with anti-establishment views - those in temporary accommodation or rented housing may feel less “at home” than homeowners

• gender - despite modern equality measures, women may feel less able to travel within an area alone; women may feel/be less active in their local community if home with children

• ethnicity - non-white may differ in their views because of local antipathy or acceptance - but older generations may feel just as british as their white counterparts

engagement

most common way to measure engagement is to consider election turnout → e.g. turnout was 60% in 2024 general election. youth, deprived, + ethnic minorities are often less likely to vote - maybe due to lack of representation in government, language barriers, lack of belonging, fear of wasted votes→ turnout is even lower at local elections.