AP Classroom Units 4-6

things I don't remember/lynch didn't teach

cell communication over short distances

• physical contact between cells

• send signals back and forth (plasmodesmata, gap junctions)

• usually to cells of the same type

cell communication over long distances

• chemical signals go to target cells

• usually to a different type of cell

signal transduction pathway

the binding of signalling molecules to receptors on the cell’s surface or interior that trigger events inside of the cell

phosphorylation cascade

• amplifies a signal when enzymes phosphorylate proteins

• positive feedback loop

protein involvement in checkpoints

cyclins and CDKs work together to progress cells through the cell cycle checkpoints

when does random assortment occur

metaphase I

law of segregation

alleles are segregated into separate gametes during mitosis

law of independent assortment

genes are not linked

null hypothesis

there is no relationship/difference between two groups of data in an investigation

alternative hypothesis

one of many possible hypotheses that states observed results are due to a nonrandom cause

chi square test

determines if there is a significant relationship between two groups of data by comparing observed outcomes to expected outcomes

compare the chi square value to the critical value in order to draw conclusions

• if the chi square is less than the critical value, accept the null hypothesis

• if the chi square value is greater than the critical value, reject the null hypothesis

chi square steps

1. establish the research question

2. determine the null hypothesis

3. determine the alternative hypothesis

4. count observed values

5. calculate expected values

6. calculate the chi square value

7. calculate the degrees of freedom

8. select the p value (0.05)

9. identify the critical value

10. compare the chi square value or the critical value in order to draw conclusions

non-nuclear inheritance

• traits inherited from places other than the nucleus

• mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA always come from the mother

phenotypic plasticity

the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype due to environmental conditions

plasmids

small, extra-chromosomal, double stranded, circular DNA molecules

mRNA modifications

• poly-A tail (3’)

• GTP cap (5’)

• excision of introns

• splicing

affect of alternative flow of information on translation in retroviruses

• retroviruses introduce viral DNA into host cells

• reverse transcription copies viral RNA into viral DNA

• DNA is integrated into the host genome

• transcription and translation results in viral offspring

horizontal acquisitions of genetic information

• transfer of DNA segments between cells or viruses and cells

• movement of DNA sequences within and between DNA segments

common techniques used to analyze or manipulate DNA and RNA

• electrophoresis

• polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

• bacterial transformation

• DNA sequencing

how does genetic engineering manipulate DNA and RNA

amplification, modification, comparison