Sociology Test #2

Chapter 3 terms:

social structure

patterned social behavior between specific social positions that have meaning only in relation to each other

* have the quality of:
* serving as cognitive maps that guide social action & behavior
* being Sui generis: the whole greater than the sum of the parts

social interaction

ways in which people respond to one another

* social interaction is structured
* ex: the structure of social setting shapes the way in which people respond to one another

“definition of the situation”

William I. Thomas said it could mold the thinking & personality of the individual

* said people respond to the meaning of the person/situation has for them
* ex: Philip Zimbardo’s mock trial: students accepted definition of the situation & acted accordingly

social status

a social position w/in the context if a social structure

* “a socially defined position w/in a large group of society”

ascribed status

born w/it or choose to associate with (assigned by society)

achieved status

an earned status (something you acquire)

leading/primary status

position of special importance for social identity, the one status that serves as the basis for how people relate to you

* “a status that dominates others & thereby determines a person a person’s general position w/in society or a particular social group”
* may be positive or negative

social roles (and how they influence behavior)

a set of expected behaviors, rights, obligations, responsibilities, attitudes, belief’s, and privileges associated w/particular social statuses

* “ a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status”
* like fences, offering a space to roam, yet limits our freedom
* they influence our behaviors

status symbols

clues (material, nonmaterial) that indicate a social position

* most statuses have at minimum, a vaguely defined set of stats symbols

status sets

all the statuses a person holds at a given time

primary groups

small social structures w/members that describe themselves as having close, relatively cooperative intimate relationships (families, friendships)

* generally small
* relatively long period of interaction
* intimate, face-to-face association
* some emotional depth in relationships
* cooperative, friendly

secondary groups

social structures w/formal, relatively impersonal, or business related ties, exist to fulfill particular purposes

* most members have very specialized tasks
* usually large
* relatively short duration, often temporary
* little social intimacy or mutual understanding
* relationships generally superficial
* formal & impersonal

groups

link individuals w/the larger society (families, etc)

in-group

social structures that are viewed as categories/groups to which we feel we belong to or are connected with

out-group

social structures that are viewed as categories/groups to which we feel we do NOT belong to or are connected with

reference group

social structures that operate as *role models* or standards for comparison against which we measure conduct

social networks (dimensions of social networks such as embeddedness and social capital, their practical aspects)

a series of social relationships or ties that link a person directly to others and through them, indirectly to even more people

* nodes: the things that are connected in the network
* bridges: segments between nodes are technically called “edges” or connections

Practical aspects:

* increase access to valued resources
* expose us to both negative (disease) and positive elements
* place people w/in the context of larger social structures or institutions w/common interests

social institutions

organized patterns of beliefs & behavior centered on basic social needs such as replacing personnel (family) & preserving order (the government)

* ex: religion- the institution of religion adapts to the segment of society it serves

the major elements of social structure (Figure 3-2)

statuses

* achieved vs. ascribed, master

social roles

* role conflict, role strain, role exit

groups

* primary vs. secondary, in-groups & out-groups, reference

social networks

social institutions

role conflict

2 + statuses & their competing or incompatible

* role related demands
* “occurs when incompatible expectations arise from 2 or more social positions held by the same person”
* ex: being a resident assistant & your good friend in your hallway violates the rules

role strain

tension among roles w/in a status

* the same social positions imposes conflicting demands & expectations
* ex: college students must demonstrate excellence in multiple areas

status inconsistency

* occurs when an individual's social positions are varied and these variations influence his or her overall social status
*  Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on his or her social status.

role exit

problems/challenges associated w/transitions out of a significant social role

* “the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity in order to establish a new role & identity

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* re-entry: for the person graduating from prison
* retirement: from a life course of working/learning
* adulthood: those who must transition from being partially responsible for their own well-being & personal decision to wholly responsible

*sui generis* as a property of social structures

social structures have the quality of being *sui generis*: the whole is the greater than the sum of the parts

* example: basketball teams
* the “thing” exists independent of any particular player, the “thing” exists over time

mechanical solidarity

all individuals perform the same task

* each person prepares food, hunts, makes clothing, and builds homes
* here the group os the dominating force in society

(intimate face-to-face)

organic solidarity

a collective consciousness resting on the need a society’s members have for one another

* interdependent (as in the same way as organs of the human body)

impression management (Goffman)

the process of self-presentation per a “social position”

* an attempt to control the beliefs or images others hold
* active engagement in the “social construction of reality”

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* direct: self-promotion of achievements, qualities, successes, abilities, social positions
* indirect: impression management by association, behaviors undertaken to promote or make known associations w/other colleagues

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impression management as performances (front stage, back stage, scripts)

backstage region:

* zones where/when we are more relaxed

front stage region:

* relatively scripted, when we are actively engaging

scripts:

* shared cognitive guide of what is about to happen

Why and in what ways are the concepts of social interaction and social structure closely linked to groups and organizations? (p 73, 81 Schaefer)

* social interactions take place in groups of friends, relatives, or coworkers or in formal organizations (universities, prisons)


* whatever the setting, an underlying social structure dictates the relationship among members of the group/organization and the ways in which they respond to one another
* groups link the individual to the larger society

How do roles & statuses contribute to the stability/instability of society? (77 Schaefer)

from a functionalist perspective:

* roles contribute to a society’s stability by enabling members to anticipate the behavior of others & to pattern their own actions accordingly
* social roles can also be dysfunctional by restricting peoples interactions & relationships

What is meant by the ‘Thomas Theorem, “if we define a situation as real, it is real in its consequences? ” And, how does this principle help us understand the constructed meaning of social behavior?

* it’s an approach to understanding micro-level social life w/the hypothesis that “objective consequences of human subjectivity have objective consequences”
* thus sociologists seek to understand peoples meaning because such meanings shape action
* ex: monster under the bed

According to Georg Simmel how do groups (e.g., dyads, triads) and group properties (e.g., size) shape interactions?

dyads: just the two of us

* unique characteristic: mutually independence
* interaction more intense

triads: interaction btwn 3 individuals

* interaction more stable

How does group size complicate or influence social life within the group?

beyond triad has implications of:

* leadership structures
* methods & frequency of communication
* intimacy & loyalty of members decreases
* as group increases, the # of possible relationships increases geometrically btwn ppl (nodes)

How do social constructions of race impact social interactions in medical settings? (PowerPoint slide 25)

* physicians tended to associate white faces & pleasant words (vice versa) more easily than black faces & pleasant words (& vice versa)
* concludes that physicians’ implicit racial biases may account for racial disparities in health, a conclusion supported by other research
* those with higher pro-white implicit biases (little difficulty associating white faces w/pleasant words) were more likely to prescribe pain medications to white patients than to black patients (all other variables held constant)
* physicians with higher anti-black implicit biases (more difficulty associating black faces with \n pleasant words) were less likely to prescribe thrombolysis to black patients and more likely to \n prescribe the treatment to white patients

Chapter 4 terms:

social control

refers to the techniques & strategies for preventing deviant behavior in any society

* occurs in all levels of society

sanctions (informal & formal)

penalties & rewards for conduct concerning a social norm

* informal sanctions: such as fear & ridicule
* formal sanctions: such as jail sentences or fines

social cohesion

the willingness of members of a society to cooperate w/each other in order to survive & prosper

deviance

any transgression of socially established norms

* behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group/society

informal vs. formal deviance

informal

* violating folkways & selected mores

formal:

* crimes, deviance formalized into laws

law

governmental social control, directed at all members of society

* created in response to a perceived need for formal social control

stigma

is the term used to describe types of labeling given to ppl whose primary status is devalued & negative

crime

violations of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties

criminology

the scientific study of crime, especially why ppl engage in crime

conformity & obedience (as 2 levels of social control)

Stanley Milgram (made the 2 distinctions)

* conformity: going along w/peers-individuals of our own status who have no special right to direct our behavior
* obedience: compliance w/higher authorities in a hierarchal structure

informal social control

casually to enforce norms

* ex: smiles, laughter, raised eyebrow, ridicule
* in the US adults view spanking as a necessary mean of informal social

formal social control

carried out by authorized agents, such as police, physicians, employers

* serve as a last resort when socialization & informal sanctions do not bring about desired behavior

collective conscious

a set of social norms or a common faith by which a society & its members abide, includes assumptions about the world works

Mechanical solidarity (how society brings about realignment)

punishments tend to exert ‘collective actions of vengeance’ that unite through emotions of revenge

* a) reinforce the boundaries of acceptability
* b) unite collectively through harsh actions (stoning, lynching or public chastisement)

Organic solidarity (how society brings about realignment)

society tends to produce sanctions that focus on the individual & are tailored to specific conditions & circumstances of the perpetrator

* sanctions are more likely to involve rehabilitation or restitution (efforts to require that perpetrators ‘restore’ the wrong they have committed)

anomie (Emile Durkheim: Functionalist)

“the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective”

* feelings of aimlessness that arise when ppl no longer expect life to be predictable resulting in a state of too little regulation
* sudden changes lead to social disruption
* a state of societal normlessness
* people are increasingly aggressive, depressed
* rates of crime increase

Merton’s strain theory (deviance, means-end)

Robert Merton modified anomie:

* anomie occurs when societies hold out the same goals to all members but do not give ppl equal ability to achieve the goals
* “strain” arises when the means do not match up to the designated ends
* deviance occurs when ppl fail to recognize/accept socially appropriate goals or socially appropriate means (or both)

Strain Theory

deviance/crime results from social conditions that prevent access to success

* retreatist’s: stop participating in society
* rebels: reject traditional societal goals & tradition means & seek to replace them
* ritualist’s: ppl who reject socially defined goals but not the means, ppl who see to get by
* innovators: ppl who yearn for material success but lack the patience or economic resources to pursue this in socially acceptable ways

Approaches to deviance (Table 4-2)

anomie:

* functionalist (Emile Durkheim & robert merton)
* emphasis: adaptation to societal norms

cultural transmission/differential association

* interactionist (Edwin Sutherland)
* emphasis: patterns learned through others

social disorganization:
* interactionist (Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay)
* emphasis: communal relationships

labeling/societal reaction

* interactionist (Howard Becker & William Chambliss)
* emphasis: societal response to acts

conflict

* conflict (Richard Quinney)
* emphasis: dominance by authorized agents; discretionary justice

Feminist

* conflict/feminist (Freda Adler & Media Chesney-Lind)
* emphasis: role of gender; women as victims & perpetrators

cultural transmission (interactionist)

Edwin Sutherland

* an individual undergoes the same basic socialization process
* emphasizes that ppl learn criminal behavior through their social interactions
* the ppl that someone sees on a regular basis, such as peers, family, & neighborhood convey how one is supposed to relate to illegal behavior

differential association (interactionist)

Edwin Sutherland

* our associations vary in frequency, duration, priority & in tensity & lead to deviance when we encounter an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions of unfavorable to violation of law
* exposure ti acts favorable to deviance/crime leads to norm violations

social disorganization theory (interactionist)

increases in crime & deviance can be attributed to the absence or breakdown of communal relationships & social institutions

labeling theory (societal-reaction approach)

attempts to explain why certain ppl are views as deviants, delinquents, “bad kids,” losers & criminals while others whose behavior is similar are not seen as harsh

* its the response to an act, not the behavior itself that determines deviance
* when label stick, the impact on labeled ppl has important consequences-sequence of events

primary deviance/deviations

the cake guy (separation of identity & deviance)

* initial acts of transgression, situational or occasional
* behaviors that may be rationalized or otherwise dealt w/as functions of a socially acceptable rule
* acts with have not been publicly labeled & are those of little consequence
* the act is bad, not the person

secondary deviance/deviations

Stanley (merger of identity & deviance)

* the individual accepts a label (their understanding of a status & its role) & sees him/herself as deviant

differential justice

differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups

UCR (one source of data on crime)

Federal bureau of investigations uniform crime reports

* all crimes reported to law enforcement agencies
* details on single crime incidents (as well as on separate offenses w/in the same incident) including info. on victims (fenders),relationships bwtn victims & offenders, arrestees & property involved in the crimes

problems:

* not all crimes are reported to to authorities: some issue incomplete or delinquent data
* collects data on conventional street crimes, hate crimes, crimes against police & not sufficiently info. on corporate offices

NCVS (second source of data on crime)

National Crime Victimization Survey (2x a year)

* nations primary source of info. on criminal victimization
* nationally representative sample of 90,000 households comprising nearly 160,000 persons on the frequency, characteristics consequences of criminal victimization

problems:

* does not ask abt homicide, arson, commercial crimes, crimes committed against children under 12

index crimes

8 types of crime (3 violent, 5 property crimes) tabulated each year by the FBI

* murder, rape, robbery, assault, property crimes of burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, arson

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deterrence

do something to discourage criminal behavior

* publicize harsher penalties, public awareness about crime prevention

incapacitation

remove people who commit crimes from general society

rehabilitation

treatment designed to change an offender

* antisocial attitudes & behavior, drug use, anger responses

retribution

a negative sanction (punishment) that fits/matches the crime or offense

white collar crime

term coined by Edwin Sutherland

* crimes committed by professionals in their capacity in the professional world
* ex: deceit, concealment, embezzlement, stock manipulation or sale coverup, & other violations. of trust committed to obtain money property, or services to avoid the payment or los of money or services or to secure a business advantage
* fun fact: according to the FBI, white collar crime cost the US annually @ $1 trillion dollars compared to $15 billion due to street crime

street crime

crime committed or originating in public spaces

most common types include:

* personal life & health (murder, bodily injury)
* sexual safety from assault or trespass (rape)
* property (theft, robbery, pickpocketing, fraud)
* public security & public order (vandalism, illegal possession of weapons, graffiti)
* public health (drug trafficking, prostitution)

social stigma

deviance as something we “are” (an identity)

* the ‘violation’ involves our sense of self or social identity
* ‘stigma’ is the term used to describe types of labels given to ppl whose “primary status” is devalued & negative
* may have stigma symbols: cane, walker, wheelchair, hearing aids

functionalist perspective in crime/deviance

* Anomie: (Durkheim) the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective
* strain theory: (Merton) deviance/crime results from social conditions that prevent access to success
* retreatist’s
* rebels
* ritualists
* innovators

conflict perspective on crime/deviance

emphasize the competing interests of class categories; the power elite invest in the economy & social fabric in ways designed to minimize the risk of ‘social junk’ transforming into ‘social dynamite’

* deviance tends to reflect social inequalities; norms & laws of society reflect the interest of the economic elite & socially powerful
* socially powerful are best able to avoid accusations/convictions of deviance/crime
* laws & social rules are political in nature (not all are inherently fair or good for the majority)

interactionist perspective on crime/deviance

* 4 concepts


1. crime is sociology constructed: an act which harms an individual or society else only becomes criminal if those in power label it as criminal
2. not everyone who is deviant gets labelled as such-negative labels are generally given to the powerless by the powerful
3. labeling has real consequences- it can lead to deviancy amplification, the self-fulfilling prophecy & deviant careers (1973 Rosenhan experiment)
4. labeling theory has a clear ‘value position’- it aims to promote policies that prevent labeling minor acts as deviant
* cultural transmission
* differential associations
* labelling theory

Quinney (differential justice)

said criminal justice systems serve the interests of the elite in society

* criminal law does not reflect a consistent application of societal value (drug laws, prostitution, gambling)

differential justice:

* variations how social control is exercised over diff. groups
* differences in sentencing patterns across racial groups
* ppl of color
* African Americans are 14% of all illegal drug users

trends in the incarceration rate from 1920s to 2020s

it had a small peak around 1983; since then it continues to increase rapidly

How and through what type of study did Stanley Milgram distinguish conformity and obedience? (99-100)

in his prison experiment he noticed that almost 2/3 of participants fell into the category of “obedient subjects”

* this happened because they saw themselves as melee doing their duty
* w/conformity,

What are the four concepts associated with interactionist theories of deviance/crime? How did two key studies (the Rosenthal and Jacobson & Rosenhan studies) confirm the consequences of labeling and its impact on social life?

* 4 concepts


1. crime is sociology constructed: an act which harms an individual or society else only becomes criminal if those in power label it as criminal
2. not everyone who is deviant gets labelled as such-negative labels are generally given to the powerless by the powerful
3. labeling has real consequences- it can lead to deviancy amplification, the self-fulfilling prophecy & deviant careers (1973 Rosenhan experiment)
4. labeling theory has a clear ‘value position’- it aims to promote policies that prevent labeling minor acts as deviant

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According to Durkheim, how do different parts of society work together to maintain order (that is, minimize deviance) ? how to his notions of mechanical and organic solidarity help us answer this question?

division of labor

* mechanical solidarity: cohesion was grounded on the sameness of societal parts
* I can do, build, grow, know what to do
* organic solidarity: social cohesion is based on interdependence
* I cannot do, build, grow, know what to do, but we need each other due to our differences

What are the broad patterns and trends concerning crime in the US? (see PowerPoint)

* Overall, crime is disproportionately committed by males.
* Some crimes (e.g. stalking, intimate partner violence, sexual assault) are predominantly committed by males against females.
* Most crimes are committed by whites against other whites, although crime tends to disproportionately affect racial and ethnic minorities.
* Crime is for young people: Ages 16 – 24 commit the most crimes, and are the highest risk age group for victimization.
* Certain populations are disproportionately affected by crime, not necessarily because of the sheer numbers of victims but as a result of crime’s greater impact on these groups: the elderly, people with disabilities, children and youth.
* Violent & property crimes in the US have fallen sharply over the past quarter century, also reflected in drops in victimization rates.

What are the four elements of the Criminal Justice System?

* deterrence: do something to discourage criminal behavior
* incapacitation: remove people who commit crimes from general society
* rehabilitation: treatment designed to change an offender
* retribution: a negative sanction (punishment) that fits/matches the crime or offense.crime or offense

about how many Americans are in the criminal justice system altogether (on parole, probation, incarcerated in jail or prison)? Out of every 100 adults in the US, how many are in prison? On parole or probation?what are the lifetime estimates for incarceration for all males? Black males? White males?

* incarcerated: 1 in 100 adults
* parole & probation: 1 in 59 adults
* all men: 1 in 9
* black males: 1 in 3
* white males: 1 in 17
* hispanic men: 1 in 6

How much of the global prisoner population is incarcerated in the United states?

5% of global pop.

What is meant by the “mark of a criminal record?” How was the study called “mark of a criminal record conducted and what were the main findings associated with Pager’s study?

the stigma of incarceration

* 2 pairs of applicants (one white & one black)
* falsified the background info. concerning criminal history

findings-

* race: white consistently hired more often then African Americans
* criminal record: ex-offenders hired less often than offenders
* black men w/no criminal history fared no better than did whites w/a criminal history

chapter 5 terms

social inequality

conditions in which members of a society enjoy different amounts of wealth, prestige or power

(social) stratification

structured ranking of entire groups of ppl that perpetuates unequal economic rewards & power

income

their salaries & wages

wealth

material assets such as land, stocks, & other property

ascribed status

a social position assigned to a person w/out regard for that person’s unique talents

achieved status

attained by a person largely through his/her own efforts

class systems (distinctions of the social classes, lower, working class, lower middle class, upper class and their approximate sizes (Pp 129-130)

a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility

* Daniel Rossides: 5 class model
* upper class: 1-2% of US: a group limited to the very wealthy (associate in exclusive clubs & social circles)
* lower class: 20-25% of the pop.: disproportionately consists of Blacks, Hispanics, single mothers w/dependent children, & people who cannot find regular work or must make do w/low-paying work (politically weak)
* upper-middle: about 10-15% of pop.: composed of professionals such as doctors, lawyers & architects (participate extensively in politics & take leadership roles in voluntary associations)
* lower-middle: approx. 30-35%: includes less affluent professionals (teachers & nurses); not all have college degrees but aspire to send their children there
* working class: 40-45% of pop.: ppl who hold regular manual or blue-collar jobs (some may have higher incomes that those in lower-middle class)

measuring social class (objective and multiple methods)

objective:

* measuring social class views class largely as a statistical category
* based on occupation, education, income, & places residence

prestige:

* respect & admiration that an occupation holds in society; independent of the particular individual

esteem:

* reputation that a specific person has earned w/in an occupation

estate system

Feudal Europe (medieval era through the 1700s)

* has political basis (laws reflect rights & duties that separate individuals & distribute power unequally), limited social mobility

caste system

strata based on hereditary notions of purity, often religious (South Asia) or racial (apartheid) in nature

* high levels of endogamy (strict rules about occupations, marriage)

slavery (changes in the criteria as ascribed/achieved, who is over represented among the global slave population, estimates of its size),

the most extreme form of social inequality, involves the ownership of individuals by other ppl

changes in the structure & criteria of slavery

* ancient world records: slavery was an achieved status
* when/where earliest documented origins: Sumerian is thought to be the birthplace of slavery
* criteria: slaves came from citizens who were defaulting debtors, unemployed adults who sold themselves voluntarily into slavery

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in the US & Latin America, slavery was an acrid status involving racial/ethnic legal barriers

* contemporary, global slavery, (staggering profits, 99 billon just in human sex trafficking)
* 40 million ppl globally
* forced labor
* forced marriages
* human sex trafficking
* women & girls represent 71% of all contemporary slaves
* 1 in 4 ppl are children (in slavery)

status group

ppl who have the same prestige/life style; gains status through membership in a desirable group

closed system of stratification

accommodate little change in social position & are typically based on ascribed status or some trait from birth, they don’t allow ppl to shift levels & do not permit social relationships btwn levels

* estates or feudalism

open system of stratification

based on achievement, allow mvmd. & interaction btwn layers & classes

* both closed & open systems reflect, emphasize, & foster certain cultural values & shape individual beliefs