Psychology Unit 2, AOS 1

What is social cognition?

social cognition is how we process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations.

What are first impressions?

First impressions are the initial judgments we make about others based on their appearance, behavior, and other cues.

What are attributions?

Attributions are the explanations we create for the behaviors of ourselves and others, often distinguishing between personal and situational factors.

What is attribution style?

Attribution style refers to how individuals explain the causes of events, often influencing their outlook on life.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

he fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors when judging others' behavior.

What is the definition of attitudes?

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas, which can be positive, negative, or neutral.

What is the tri-component model of attitudes (ABC's)?

The tri-component model consists of Affective (emotions), Behavioral (actions), and Cognitive (thoughts) components of attitudes.

What are the Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive components?

Affective relates to feelings, Behavioral relates to actions, and Cognitive relates to beliefs or thoughts about the attitude object.

What is one limitation of the tri-component model?

One limitation is that not all attitudes predict behavior consistently, as external factors can influence actions.

What is stereotyping?

Stereotyping is the oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular group of people.

What is cognitive dissonance?

Cognitive dissonance the psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviours do not align with one another

What is cognitive bias?

unconscious, systematic tendencies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality

What is confirmation bias?

the tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviors and ignore contradictory information

What is false-consensus bias?

the tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do

What are heuristics?

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision making and problem solving processes.

What is one positive aspect of heuristics?

Heuristics can lead to quicker decision-making and more efficient problem solving by reducing cognitive load.

What is one negative aspect of heuristics?

They can lead to errors in judgment or decision-making.

What are the four types of heuristics?

The four types of heuristics are availability, representativeness, adjustment and anchoring, and affective heuristics. These types help individuals make decisions based on mental shortcuts.

What is anchoring in heuristics?

an information processing strategy that involves forming judgements based on the first information received about an idea or concept

What is availability in heuristics?

Availability refers to judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

What is representativeness in heuristics?

an information-processing strategy that involves making a categorical judgement about an idea, event, or person based on their similarity to other items in that category

What is affect in heuristics?

an information-processing strategy that involves using emotions to make a judgement or decision

What are the differences between prejudice and discrimination?

Prejudice an often negative preconception held against people within a certain group or social category whereas Discrimination the unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category

What is stigma?

the feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others

Social Group

refers to two or more people who interact and influence each other and share a common objective

Group Norms

Rules and expectations within a group.

Formal vs. Informal Differences

refers to the distinctions between official policies and regulations versus unwritten social expectations and behaviors within groups.

Social Loafing

refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Promoting + Preventing Factors

Factors that influence group dynamics, including elements that encourage or hinder participation and performance.

Culture

refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors of a group that shape their interactions and social structures.

Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures

Individualist cultures prioritize personal goals and autonomy, while collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and interdependence.

In-groups + Out-groups

Groups we identify with vs. those we don't.

Social Identity Theory

the tendency for people to favour their in-group over an out-group in order to enhance their sense of self-esteem

Zimbardo's Experiment

A psychological study that demonstrated the impact of situational variables on behavior, highlighting how individuals conform to roles within a simulated prison environment.

Procedure

Involves assigning participants to roles of guards and prisoners to observe behavior changes.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their easy availability and proximity to the researcher.

Year of Zimbardo's Experiment

1971

Allocation of Groups

How participants were assigned to roles.

Roles in the Experiment

Prisoners and guards, with specific duties.

Norms of the Groups

Expected behaviors for prisoners and guards.

Example of Formal Norms

Prisoners must ask for permission.

Example of Informal Norms

Guards waking up prisoners at night.

Duration of the Experiment

Ended after 6 days.

Ethical Guidelines

Informed consent, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, debriefing.

Obedience Definition

complying with commands which are often given by a source of authority  

Constructive vs. Destructive Obedience

Constructive obedience occurs when there is compliance with the orders of an authority that results in a positive outcome. Destructive obedience occurs when there is compliance with the orders of an authority that results in a negative outcome.

Milgram's Experiment

Study on obedience to authority.

Authority Figure's Status

Influence of authority on obedience levels.

Proximity

the (physical closeness) or relationship proximity (emotional closeness) between an individual and someone who makes a command

Group Pressure

refers to the pressure put on an individual by a group

Aim of Milgram's Study

To investigate obedience to authority.

Participants in Milgram's Study

40 males from various education levels.

Results of Milgram's Study

65% continued to max 450 volts.

Ethical Breaches in Milgram's Study

Informed consent and withdrawal rights issues.

Use of Deception

Participants were misled but debriefed afterward.