Unit 6

Agricultural Revolution

an 18th century change in methods of farming and stock breeding. led to significant increase in food production and created a new labor supply. inventions included seed drill

causes of industrial revolution in Britain

supply of capital, agricultural revolution, tons of industrial entrepreneurs, mineral resources, supportive government, and good market supply

technological changes in yarn

flying shuttle, water frame, spinning jenny all increased production and led to organization of laborers in centralized places by water and with machinery.

James Watt

Scottish engineer who created the steam engine and a rotary engine that could drive machinery. the steam engine revolutionized textile production and gave Britain a monopoly over cotton clothing/goods.

Transportation Revolution

18c expansion of transportation facilities. created tons of new jobs, contributed to maturing of industrial revolution, and helped grow the economy. included railroads, turnpikes, canals, steamships, trolley cars, airplanes, bicycles, automobiles.

Richard Trevithick

pioneered the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line (it was very slow).

why did some European countries not industrialize as quickly as Britain?

1. lack of infrastructure (roads and river transit)

2. toll stations and customs barriers increased costs and prices

3. guild restrictions

4. lack of competitive/entrepreneurial attitude

5. lack of technical knowledge

6. lack of natural resources

how did governments spread industrialization in their countries?

1. provided for the cost of technological education

2. gave investors and international entrepreneurs grants

3. exempted foreign industrial equipment from import duties/tariffs

4. financed factories

5. built infrastructure

6. used tariffs to protect domestic industries

Friedrich List

German writer and US consul. wrote “National System of Political Economy.” advocated rapid and large scale program of industrialization as the surest path to develop a nation’s strength. pro-protective tariffs to fight Britain.

Harper’s Ferry Arsenal

built muskets with interchangeable parts → made production process faster → known as the “American” system

Second Industrial Revolution

A second wave of industrialization in Europe characterized by factory production, new technologies, developments in communication and transportation, and new industries.

Second Industrial Revolution: new technologies

1. Bessemer process

2. electricity

3. chemicals

4. mass production

Second Industrial Revolution: communication inventions

1. telegraph

2. telephones

3. radio

Second Industrial Revolution: transportation inventions

1. steamship

2. streetcars/trolleys

3. internal combustion engine

4. airplanes

5. railroads

6. refrigerated rail cars

7. bicycles

8. automobiles

Second Industrial Revolution: new industries

1. chemical industry

2. automobile industry

3. electricity and utilities

4. leisure travel

5. professional and leisure sport

Alexander Graham Bell

invented the telephone

Marconi

sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901. invented the telegraph.

internal combustion engine

produced in 1878. fired by gas and air. unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power in transportation until petroleum. led to automobile and airplane.

Gottlieb Daimler

invented a light engine that was key to the development of the automobile

Henry Ford

revolutionized industry with mass production of the Model T and the assembly line

tariffs

taxes on imports that guarantee domestic markets for the same domestic-made products

cartels

independent enterprises that work together to control prices and fix production quotas, thereby restraining price-lowering competition

European economic zone: GB, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Germany, w Austria-Hungarian Empire, n Italy

advanced industrialized core with a high standard of living, good transportation, and a healthy and educated population

European economic zone: S Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkans, Russia

still largely agricultural and relegated to provision of food and raw materials

First Industrial Revolution

period of industrialization that started in Great Britain and focused on the cotton industry, the steam engine, the iron industry, and transportation revolution.

Cotton Industry inventions

1. spinning jenny

2. water frame

3. Crompton’s Mule

4. power loom

steam engine

first used to pump water out of coal mines. powered spinning and weaving. increased demand for coal.

why did the population increase?

because of a decline in death rates.

caused by drop in death from famines, epidemics and war; also caused by increase food supply that was also more accessible, allowing populations to be healthier and more resistant to disease.

James Kay-Shuttleworth

eloquent British reformer who described the poor as “volcanic elements” who could destroy society

Edwin Chadwick

one of the best of the new breed of urban reformers. focused on eliminating poverty. secretary of the Poor Law Commission and investigated the living conditions of the working class. discussed overcrowded dwellings, decomposing animals, etc. suggested draining, removing refuse, and improving water supply. advocated system of modern sanitary reforms → led to National Board of Health.

cholera

disease whose outbreaks ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and late 1840s. forced people to recognize the filthy conditions and bad sewage may be spreaders of disease

pauper apprentices

orphans/abandoned kids who were cared for by parishes. apprenticed to factory owners to lower parish costs. inadequate food and recreation.

Factory Act of 1833

reduce the number of children employed.

Poor Law Act of 1834

established workhouses for jobless poor people to be forced to live in. the intent was to punish poor people and get them to stop being poor, so families were separated and work assignments were extreme.

Combination Acts (1799 and 1800)

British laws that outlawed associations of workers. These laws were a reaction to the radicalism of the French working class.

trade unions

associations formed by skilled workers in a number of new industries, including cotton spinners, ironworkers, and more. they preserved their own workers’ positions by limiting entry into their trade and helped workers gain benefits from the employers.

Robert Owen

believed in creation of voluntary associations that demonstrated the benefits of cooperative rather than competitive living. under his direction, plans emerged for the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union.

Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1834)

national federation of trade unions. the purpose was to coordinate a general strike for the 8-hour workday. the union fell apart.

Luddites

skilled craftspeople in midlands and northern England who in 1812 destroyed the machines they believed threatened their livelihoods. failed to stop industrial mechanization.

Chartism

the first important movement of working men organized during the 19c. their aim was to achieve political democracy. advocated for universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property qualifications for Parliament, the secret ballot, annual sessions of Parliament, and more. They tried to encourage change peacefully through 2 petitions but were rejected.

Factory Act of 1833

only let kids between 9 and 13 work 8 hours a day; for people between 13-18 the limit was 12 hours. also appointed factory inspectors with the power to fine rule breakers.

Ten Hours Act (1847)

reduced workday for kids 13-18 and women of all ages to ten hours.

Coal Mines Act (1842)

eliminated the employment of boys under 10 and all women in mines

sweating

subcontracting of piecework int he tailoring trades. made people do it at home for long hours and low pay.

Contagious Diseases Act

British law that let authorities examine prostitutes for STDs as part of a crackdown on prostitution.

Josephine Butler

reformer who objected to punishing just women and not men for STDs and prostitution. led to the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act in 1886.

Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel

leaders of the German Social Democratic Party

German Social Democratic Party

political party based on revolutionary Marxist ideas. tried to improve the condition of the working class. later became the largest single party in Germany and the most successful socialist party at the time.

Jean Jaures

leader of French socialism. inspired by French revolution rather than Marxism. However, French socialism was divided.

Second International

loose association of national socialist groups. coordinated some stuff like May Day (strikes and protests everywhere) but were divided by revisionism/evolutionary socialism and nationalism.

Marxism

movement based on the ideas of Karl Marx. advocated for collective workers’ ownership of the means of production. ‘pure’ form accepted the quick collapse of capitalism.

Evolutionary socialism/revisionism

challenged Second International and ‘pure’ Marxism. ideology that was anti-revolution and advocated enacting socialist goals through legal, political and economic reforms.

Eduard Bernstein

member of the German Social Democratic Party. challenged Marxist ideas with “Evolutionary Socialism” which disregarded the emphasis on revolution and said change should instead happen gradually and legally.

General Confederation of Labor

national French organization of unions. flopped because it was decentralized and excluded some important individual unions.

anarchism

movement that believed that people were inherently good but corrupted by the state and society. saw freedom as being achieved only by abolishing the state and all existing social institutions. didn’t start off violent but eventually became violent.

Michael Bakunin

anarchist who believed small groups of well-trained, dedicated revolutionaries could do so much damage through violence that the state would collapse.

Public health Act of 1875

legislation in Great Britain that prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and an internal drainage system

plutocrats

wealthy upperclass elite that were produced by big businesses.

Dr. Aletta Jacob

founded Europe’s first birth control clinic in 1882 Amsterdam

mass education

systematic education as a result of mass society. most states started to offer at least compulsory primary education. teacher training schools were established, demand for teachers increased, and literacy skyrocketed.

Barbara Bodichon

pioneer in the development of female education. established her own school that trained girls for both economic independence and domesticity.

mass leisure

common patterns of leisure time as a result of industrializtion, including evening after work, weekends, and a few weeks in summer. included walks, amusement parks, athletic events, dance/music halls, and tourism.

Thomas Cook

British pioneer for mass tourism who offered trips and tours to the French coast

liberalism

owed much to the 18c Enlightenment and American/French Revolutions. largely adopted by industrial middle class. movement that all began with the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. took several forms: political & economic.

economic liberalism/classic economics

liberal movement whose primary tenet was laissez-faire. believed the government should restrict itself only to defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and construction/maintenance of public works that were too expensive for individuals.

key figures: Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo

Thomas Malthus

economic liberal who wrote “Essay on the Principles of Population.” said that if population growth isn’t lessened, it will outpace food production, leading to starvation. also said that misery and poverty are the result of nature and shouldn’t be interfered with. created the Malthusian trap.

David Ricardo

economic liberal who wrote “Principles of Political Economy.” created iron law of wages, which said that increased population led to increased workers and decreased wages, ultimately leading to misery and starvation, which decreased population and increased wages. said raising wages would only perpetuate that cycle.

political liberalism

movement that favored the protection of civil liberties, equality before the law, freedom of assembly/speech/press, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. wanted rights to be guaranteed in a written document. advocated religious toleration, separation fo church and state, checks and balances, and limited suffrage tied to middle-class men.

key figures: John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill

political liberal and English philosopher. wrote “On Liberty” about the liberty of individuals. argued for absolute freedom of opinion on everything. anti-censorship and tyranny. big womens’ rights advocate. wrote “On the Subjection of Women” about the argument that legal oppression was wrong and sex/gender differences were due to social practices.

nationalism

powerful ideology for change in the 19th century. arose out of awareness of being part of a nation with common institutions, historical traditions, languages, and customs. made the nation the primary political loyalty and believed that each nation should have its own government. threatened to upset existing political order, and initially allied with liberalism.

socialism

created because of the atrocious industrial revolution conditions. eventually became associated with Marxism. wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed cooperation was better than industrial revolution capitalism.

Utopian Socialism

type of socialism that was against private property and early industrial revolution-era capitalist competittion. wanted to eliminate and create new social organization for a better environment. wanted to introduce equality into these conditions and focused on cooperation.

different ideological methods to accomplishing socialist ideas

1. Fourier

2. Owen

3. Blanc

4. Female supporters

5. Tristan

Charles Fourier

leader of the Fourier method to accomplish socialism. proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries, that would be self contained with around 1.6k people and communal housing. also said the cooperative living arrangements would have rotating work assignments. never go to test method.

Robert Owen

socialist British cotton manufacturer who believed that humans would reveal true natural goodness in cooperative environments. transformed a factory town into a community in Scotland, but couldn’t do it in Indiana.

Louis Blanc

socialist Frenchman who wrote “Organization of Work.” said that social problems were solved by government assistance and that competititon was the main cause of economic evils. advocated for state-financed, worker-owned and operated workshops to manufacture goods for public sale.

female supporters’ methods to accomplish socialist goals

largely focused on equality; characterized by women like Zoe Gatti de Gamond and Comté de Saint-Simón.

Zoé Gatti de Gamond

follower of Fourier. established her own equal phalanstery to achieve socialist ideals.

Comté de Saint-Simón

socialist whose ideas combined Christian values, scientific thought, and socialist utopianism. his method was attractive to women and his methods recognized equality.

Flora Tristan

female utopian socialist who tried to combine socialism and feminism. preached female liberation in France. her “Worker’s Union” (published journal) said that absolute equality is the only hope to free the working class and change civilization.

joint-stock investment banks

crucial to contribution to industrial development because they mobilized tons of capital resources for investment. super important in promotion of railroad construction.

the Communist Manifesto (1848)

written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. proclaimed ideas of revolutionary socialism. called for class solidarity and said the government of the state defended the interests of the industrial middle class and its allies. bourgeoisie was bad, proletariat was good. advocated a plan to overthrow the bourgeosie, establish a proletariat dictatorship to seize the means of production, and then create a classless society and destroy the state.

proletariat

industrial working class

Karl Marx

inspired by ideas of Hegel. first was editor of liberal bourgeosie newspaper, then met Engels. joined Communist League. advocate of radical working class movement. helped write the Communist Manifesto and wrote Das Kapital. ideas were a combination of French and German thought and said that a revolution could restructure society. believed everything evolves and all change is the result of conflicts between antagonistic elements, and history is determined by material factors. dominant person on General Council.

International Working Men’s Association (1864)

organization for working class interests that was. founded by British and French trade unionists. Marx played a big role.

Friedrich Engels

wrote the Communist Manifesto with Marx. acquired firsthand knowledge of “wage slavery” of British owrking class. wrote “The Conditions of the Working Class in England” as an indictment of industrial life.

Quadruple Alliance

Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. aligned in 1814 and stayed aligned to ensure postwar peace. restored the Bourbon monarchy to France and agreed on the Congress of Vienna.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

leader of the Congress of Vienna. key figure of the Conservative Order. claimed to be guided by the principle of legitimacy.

principle of legitimacy

wanted to restore legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions and restore peace and stability in Europe. key belief of Metternich and the Conservative Order.

Congress of Vienna (1814)

peace settlement among the Quadruple Alliance and led by Metternich. allowed Prussia and Austria to keep Polish territory. established a new Polish kingdom with Russia in charge. divided up areas to balance power. focused on limiting French expansion and power.

balance of power

approach to neutralizing France’s power- tried to defend against potential expansion by creating Netherlands, strengthening Prussia, creating a Germanic Fondederation, pushing France’s borders back to 1790 and forcing them to pay an indemnity and accept a 5y army of occupation as punishment for accepting Napoleon back. decided at Congress of Vienna.

Burke’s conservativism

maintained society was a contract but the state is just a partnership agreement. said no generation can destroy the partnership and must pass it down to the next. against violent revolution.

Joseph de Maistre

most influential spokesman for counterrevolution and authoritarian conservativism. pro hereditary absolute monarchy.

conservativism

political philosophy that dates back to 1790. had similar general beliefs. favored obedience to political authority, believed organized religion was necessary for social order, was anti-revolution, unwilling to accept liberal demands for civil liberties or nationalist demands. said community > individual rights. supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches. dominated internationally and domestically after 1815.

Concert of Europe (1818-1822)

series of periodic conferences between Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria (Quadruple Alliance) to discuss ocmmon interests and maintain peace. was born out of fear of a revolution and wars to maintain status quo. made up fo 4 congresses held between 1818-1822.

1818 Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle

4 powers agreed to withdraw army of occupation from France and add France to the Concert of Europe

1820 Congress at Troppau

was called to deal with revolution in Spain and Italy. proposed the Principle of Intervention. all but Britain agreed.

principle of intervention

allowed great powers of Europe to send armies into countries with revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to the throne.

1821 Congress at Laibach

Austria, Prussia, and Russia authorized sending Austrian troops to Naples, crushing the revolt and restoring Ferdinand I.

1822 Congress at Verona

Austria, Prussia, and Russia authorized France to invade Spain to crush revolt. restored the Bourbon Monarch.