psych 1001

situationism

The view that our behaviour and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings

dispositionism

Behaviour is determined by internal factors

self serving bias

Making internal attributions for your successes and making external attributions for your failures is an example of…

individualistic culture (north america)

A culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error.

collectivistic culture (asia)

A culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community, are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error

fundamental attribution error

Essentially, we often assume someone's actions are due to their inherent character, rather than considering external circumstances that might be influencing their behavio

actor-observer bias

the phenomenon of attributing other people’s behaviour to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behaviour to situational forces

social norm

A(n) ________ is a set of group expectations for appropriate thoughts and behaviours of its members.

script

On his first day of soccer practice, Jose suits up in a t-shirt, shorts, and cleats and runs out to the field to join his teammates. Jose’s behaviour is reflective of ________.

attribution

a belief about the cause of a result

three main dimension of attribution

• locus of control (internal vs external)

• stability (stable vs unstable)

• controllability (controllable vs uncontrollable)

Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects, and ideas.

evaluations

just-world hypothesis

the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve

justification of effort

suggests that we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into. According to this theory, if something is difficult for us to achieve, we believe it is more worthwhile.

persuasion

is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication

central route

is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an arguments worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car’s safety features and fuel economy

peripheral route

an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message. Instead of focusing on the facts and a product’s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement.

foot in the door technique

the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favour or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favour or purchase of a bigger item.

confederate

a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher

conformity

the change is a persons behavior to go along with the group, even if they do not agree with the group

asch effect

the influence of the group majority on an individuals judgment

Normative social influence

people conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group

informational social influence

people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous

groupthink

is the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus

group polarization

It is the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group. That is, if a group initially favours a viewpoint, after discussion the group consensus is likely a stronger endorsement of the viewpoint.

social loafing

Involves a reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled. Because each individual's efforts are not evaluated, individuals can become less motivated to perform well.

 Prejudice is to ________ as discrimination is to ________.

feeling; behavior

social faciliatation

occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behaviour alone. This typically occurs when people are performing a task for which they are skilled.

deindividuation

Group situation in which a person may feel a sense of anonymity and a resulting reduction in accountability and sense of self

prejudice

is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular social group

discrimination

is negative action toward an individual as a result of one’s membership in a particular group (Allport, 1954; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004). As a result of holding negative beliefs (stereotypes) and negative attitudes (prejudice) about a particular group, people often treat the target of prejudice poorly, such as excluding older adults from their circle of friends.

self-fulfilling prophecy.

is an expectation held by a person that alters his or her behaviour in a way that tends to make it true. When we hold stereotypes about a person, we tend to treat the person according to our expectations.

in group

is a group that we identify with or see ourselves belonging too

out group

is a group that we view as fundamentally different from us

in-group bias

can result in prejudice and discrimination because the out-group is perceived as different and is less preferred than our in-group.

scapegoating

is the act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal

The bystander effect likely occurs due to ________.

diffusion of responsibility

hostile aggression

is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain

instrumental aggression

is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain

bystander effect

is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just watch what is happening.

diffusion of responsibility

is the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group

prosocial behavior

Voluntary behaviour with the intent to help other people

altruism

is people’s desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping.

proximity

You are more likely to be friends with people you have regular contact with. For example, there are decades of research that shows that you are more likely to become friends with people who live in your dorm, your apartment building, or your immediate neighbourhood

similarity

is another factor that influences who we form relationships with. We are more likely to become friends or lovers with someone who is similar to us in background, attitudes, and lifestyle. In fact, there is no evidence that opposites attract.

homophily

is the tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar

sternbergs triangular theory of love

Robert Sternberg proposed that there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. These three components form a triangle that defines multiple types of love:

form of love: like

defined as having intimacy but no passion or commitment.

form of love: infactuation

The presence of passion without intimacy or commitment.

form of love: empty love

is having commitment without intimacy or passion

form of love: compassionate love

characteristic of close friendships and family relationships, consists of intimacy and commitment but no passion.

form of love: romantic love

defined by having passion and intimacy, but no commitment

form of love: fatuous love

defined by having passion and commitment, but no intimacy, such as a long term sexual love affair

stress

a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being

primary appreasial

involves judgement about the degree of potential harm or threat to well being that a stressor might entail

secondary apprasial

judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be. As you may recall from what you learned about self-efficacy, an individual’s belief in his ability to complete a task is important. A threat tends to be viewed as less catastrophic if one believes something can be done about it

eustress

is a good kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance. A moderate amount of stress can be beneficial in challenging situations.

distress

People who reach this level of stress feel burned out; they are fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline. If the stress remains excessive, health may begin to erode as well

fight or flight

occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions—especially those associated with a perceived threat. During the _____, the body is rapidly aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system

three stages of the general adaption syndrome

1) alarm reaction, (2) stage of resistance, and (3) stage of exhaustion

alarm reaction

 describes the body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, and it is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response described by Cannon. During an ____, you are alerted to a stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation.

stage of resistance

During this stage, the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor. Nevertheless, the body also remains on alert and is prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, although with less intensity.

stage of exhaustion

At this stage, the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body’s ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body’s tissues and organs. As a result, illness, disease, and other permanent damage to the body—even death—may occur.

sympathetic nervous system

When a person first perceives something as stressful (Selye’s alarm reaction), the ____ triggers arousal via the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. Release of these hormones activates the fight-or-flight responses to stress, such as accelerated heart rate and respiration.

hypothalamic pitutary adrenal (HPA) axis

the _____, which is primarily endocrine in nature, becomes especially active, although it works much more slowly than the sympathetic nervous system. In response to stress, the hypothalamus (one of the limbic structures in the brain) releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone

cortisol

is commonly known as a stress hormone and helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight.

epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

a stressful event causes a variety of physiological reactions that activate the adrenal glands, which in turn release __ , __, __. These hormones affect a number of bodily processes in ways that prepare the stressed person to take direct action, but also in ways that may heighten the potential for illness.

chronic stressors

include events that persist over an extended period of time, such as caring for a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or imprisonment.

acute stressor

involve brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event has ended, such as falling on an icy sidewalk and breaking your leg

job strain

a work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little discretion in decision making or job control

job burnout

which is a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one’s job

three dimensions of job burnout

The first dimension is exhaustion—a sense that one’s emotional resources are drained or that one is at the end of their rope and has nothing more to give at a psychological level. Second, job burnout is characterized by depersonalization: a sense of emotional detachment between the worker and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical, or indifferent attitudes toward these individuals. Third, job burnout is characterized by diminished personal accomplishment, which is the tendency to evaluate one’s work negatively by, for example, experiencing dissatisfaction with one’s job-related accomplishments or feeling as though one has categorically failed to influence others’ lives through one’s work.

immunosuppression

the immune system may sometimes break down and be unable to do its job. This situation is referred to as ___, the decreased effectiveness of the immune system.

Psychoneuroimmunology 

is the field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning.

type a behavior pattern

includes an aggressive and chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time. Specific characteristics of the Type _ pattern include an excessive competitive drive, chronic sense of time urgency, impatience, and hostility toward others (particularly those who get in the person’s way).

negative affectivity

is a tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness . It has been linked with the development of both hypertension and heart disease.

problem focused coping

one attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress (i.e., the stressor). ____ coping strategies are similar to strategies used in everyday problem-solving: they typically involve identifying the problem, considering possible solutions, weighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative

emotion focused coping

consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress. These efforts may include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others (“I’m not as bad off as they are”), or seeking something positive in a negative event (“Now that I’ve been fired, I can sleep in for a few days”).

perceived control

is our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes, and it has major implications for our health and happiness

social support

can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances. ____ can take many forms, including advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance

biofeedback

is a technique that uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person’s neuromuscular and autonomic activity—feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory signals.

positve affect

refers to pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement

flow

is described as a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). It is usually related to creative endeavours and leisure activities, but it can also be experienced by workers who like their jobs or students who love studying

psychopathology

is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment. The term  ____ can also refer to the manifestation of a psychological disorder.

a psychological disorder is a condition that is said to consists of the following:

1. there are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

2. the disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction

3. the disturbances lead to a significant distress or disability in ones life

4. the disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to certain events

comorbidity

the co-occurence of two disorders

the biological perspective

views psycholgocial disorders as linked to biological phenomena such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities

psychosocial perspective

This perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors.

children with autism show signs of significant disturbances in three main areas

a) deficits in social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive patterns of behaviour or interests. These disturbances appear early in life and cause serious impairments in functioning

schizophrenia

a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behaviour.

psychotic disorder

or one in which the person’s thoughts, perceptions, and behaviours are impaired to the point where she is not able to function normally in life.

symptoms of schizophrenia

The main symptoms of ____ include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behaviour, and negative symptoms

delusions

are beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence.

disorganized thinking

refers to disjointed and inchorent thought processes-usually detected by what a person says. The person might ramble, exhibit loose associations (jump from topic to topic), or talk in a way that is so disorganized and incomprehensible that it seems as though the person is randomly combining words.

disorganized or abnormal motor behavior

 refers to unusual behaviours and movements: becoming unusually active, exhibiting silly child-like behaviours (giggling and self-absorbed smiling), engaging in repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying odd facial expressions and gestures.

catatonic behaviours

shows decreased reactivity to the environment, such as posturing, in which the person maintains a rigid and bizarre posture for long periods of time, or catatonic stupor, a complete lack of movement and verbal behaviour.

negative symptoms

are those that reflect noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviours, emotions, or drives (Green, 2001). A person who exhibits diminished emotional expression shows no emotion in his facial expressions, speech, or movements, even when such expressions are normal or expected.

avolition

characterized by a lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks, such as bathing and grooming.

algoia

refers to reduced speech output; in simple terms, patients do not say much.

anhedonia

expresses little interest in what most people consider to be pleasurable activities, such as hobbies, recreation, or sexual activity.