Mind Matters - EXAM

Normality

A pattern of thoughts, feelings, or behaviours that conforms to a usual, typical or expected standard.

Abnormality

Behaviour that is deviant, distressing or dysfunctional & interferes with the person’s ability to carry out their day to day life.

6 Main Approaches to Describe Normality

• Socio-cultural

• Functional

• Historical

• Situational

• Medical

• Statistical

Socio-cultural

• What a particular group of people view as acceptable/unacceptable behaviour. 

• Focuses on the social norms that are influenced by nationality, religion, ethnicity, and peer group

• E.g. Australians eating vegemite on toast

Functional

• How effectively someone functions, copes, and adapts to daily life demands

• If they are abnormal they would not be able to function due to distraction, confusion, or interaction problems

• E.g. Maintaining personal hygiene, maintaining relationships

Historical

• Behaviour based on changes in society & what is considered normal at that time

• E.g. Left-handedness was considered abnormal/evil, but now it is accepted.

Situational

• The location/place in which behaviour occurs may change whether or not it is normal

• E.g. being quiet in the library

Medical

• Physical health and physiological causes that can be diagnosed and treated

• E.g. ADHD

Statistical

• Behaviour distributed in a normal bell curve - if majority shows a behaviour, it is considered normal

• When behaviours fall outside of the normal range it is considered abnormal

• E.g. when a child starts walking

Pro-social Behaviour

• Helping behaviour that benefits other people and society in general

• Usually voluntary

• E.g. Charity, cooperation, friendship, bystander intervention, aiding & assisting

Why do people help others?

• Nature = humans help people to protect our species

• Nurture = learned behaviour, through socialisation and development

Factors influencing Pro-social behaviour

• Situation

• Social norms

• Personal characteristics (e.g. empathy)

Anti-social Behaviour

• Behaviour that is harmful to others and the community

• Can be hostile, instrumental, or a response to an immediate situations

Why do people engage in anti-social behaviour?

• Nature = humans instinctively behave to protect themselves

• Nurture = learned behaviour, through socialisation & development

Factors influencing anti-social behaviour

• Situation

• Deindividuation (when a person cannot be identified personally)

• Personal characteristics

Individualist Cultures

• Those that stress the needs of the individual over the needs of the group as a whole

• People are seen as independent and autonomous

Collectivist Cultures

Emphasise the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual

Forensic Psychology

• Involves applying psychological knowledge & principles to legal issues

• They investigate many aspects of crime, e.g. the reliability of evidence/eyewitnesses, the role of memory, & decision-making.

• Look at crimes in relation to human nature & crimes as a process (thoughts, feelings, behaviours).

• Nature vs Nurture debate is central to this field of work

Nature (Nature vs Nurture)

= Genes & hereditary factors e.g. physical appearance, personality

• Difficult temperament: impulsivity, novelty seeking, and lack of empathy, aggression.

• Sociopath? Psychopath? Narcissist? (personality disorder diagnosis)

• Difficulty expressing emotions

• Addiction and addictive personality

• Mental illness

• Is it out of their control?

Nurture (Nature vs Nurture)

 = Environmental Variables e.g. childhood, upbringing & social relationships

• Childhood and upbringing

• Modelled behaviour and socialisation.

• What is right and wrong?

• Coercive behaviour and peers

• Exposure to child neglect, violence or abuse.

• Social skills

• This shapes how a child will view the world

• Ability to deal with stressors/coping

• Emotional regulation

Temperament (proto-psychology theory)

Four fundamental personality types:

- Strong Emotions

- Weak Emotions

- Unchangeable Temperaments

- Changeable Temperaments

Civil Sector

• Laws relating to personal matters rather than criminal matters (e.g. marriage, divorce, property)

• Forensic Psychologists work within this sector

Criminal Sector

• People would commit a crime

• Forensic Psychologists work within this sector

A forensic psychologist may be involved in (Considering the mental state of a defendant)...

• Deciding if because of their mental state or an intellectual ability the defendant can understand the court proceedings

• Predicting the likelihood of an offender reoffending in the future

• Deciding if the defendant would be responsive to treatment

• Determining if children have the ability to be witnesses in court cases

Skills of a forensic psychologist

• Collecting & reporting (written & oral) evidence of a psychological nature for use in legal proceedings

• Psychological assessment & report writing

• Psychological formulation and diagnosis

• Psychological intervention (psychotherapies, rehabilitation)

• Program evaluation

• Forensic interviewing

• Research

How to become a Forensic Psychologist

1. Undergraduate Degree (3-4 years)

• Bachelor’s degree in psychology

2. Postgraduate Study (1-2 years)

3. General Registration (2 years)

4. Forensic Psychology specialisation (2+ years)

Detecting Nonverbal Cues

• Any form of communication, information, or messages between people without using your words

• Can include hand signals, body language, and physical appearance

• Could get nervous, shy, or overwhelmed

Polygraph Tests

• Based on detecting automatic reactions 

• Not always considered reliable

• Results from these tests are not admissible (valid) in court proceedings

• Assesses 3 indicators of autonomic arousal (Heart rate/blood pressure, respiration, & skin conductivity)

How do lie detectors work?

• Consists of a pretest interview, designed to ensure that subjects understand the questions & include a subject’s concern about being deceptive

• The control questions control the effect of the generally threatening nature of relevant questions

Do they really work?

• There is no evidence that any pattern of physiological reactions is unique to deception

• An honest person can be anxious , and a dishonest person may not be anxious

Eyewitness Testimony

= An account given by people of an event they have witnessed

• E.g an eyewitness might be asked to give a description of the criminal

Psychopaths

• Due to a genetic predisposition

• Pretend to care

• Display cold-hearted behaviour

• Lack of empathy

• Shallow/fake relationships

• Maintain a normal life as a cover

• May love people in their own way

• May be diagnosed with ‘antisocial personality disorder

Sociopaths

• Antisocial behaviour because of environmental factors

• Make it clear they do not care how others feel

• Behave in hot-headed & impulsive ways

• Prone to fits of anger and rage

• Recognise what they are doing but rationalise their behaviour

• Hard to maintain a regular work and family life

• Can form emotional attachments, but it is difficult

Happiness

A sense of wellbeing and satisfaction in one’s life

Positive Psychology

• Study of what makes humans function at their best

• Helps people find happiness and meaning

What does not affect Happiness

• Age

• Education

• IQ

• Wealth (as long as basic needs are met)

Acts of Kindness

• Happiness lasts longer when performing an act of kindness to another person

• Makes us feel generous, capable, a greater sense of connection to others

Altruism

The unselfish concern for other people

Nature (happiness)

Genes can influence personality, stress, and likelihood of developing mental illnesses

Nurture (Happiness)

Life experiences can impact how we feel about life e.g. upbringing, relationships, life events

Factors for happiness (OCTV)

1. Outlook on life - we learn to be either positive or negative 

2. Cultural Differences - different beliefs, behaviours etc considered unique to a certain ethnicity or origin

3. Values - what we believe is important/beneficial

4. Temperament - Inborn qualities that determine how well we interact with our environment

Optimists

people who see the world from a positive viewpoint

Pessimists

people who see the world from a negative viewpoint

Happiness Level

• Increasing levels of happiness if something positive happens

• Decrease happiness level if something negative happens

• Eventually return to typical level of happiness (setpoint)

    ~ To live a full and meaningful life, we need to feel both negative and positive emotions ~

Depression

The diagnosed feelings of sadness that are intense and will not go away. It affects a person’s ability to function in their normal day-to-day activities.

Biopsychosocial (BPS) Framework

• Developer: George L. Engel

• Core idea: Interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors

• States: Interactions between all 3 factors determine:

  • Cause

  • Manifestation

  • Outcome of wellness AND disease

• Contrast: Historical theories (nature/nurture) thought ONE factor was sufficient

• BPS argues: One factor is NOT sufficient - need all 3

BPS Framework Advantages

• Holistic approach

• Health professionals consider this model as the basic framework for understanding mental health & illness

• Promotes considering multiple factors when treating illness, not just symptoms

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

• Created by Abraham Maslow in 1943

• Theory often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid 

• Basic needs (vital for our survival) must be met before higher needs can be

Physiological Needs (basic) - food, water, warmth , rest

Safety Needs (basic) - security, safety

Belongingness & Love needs (Psychological) - intimate relationships, friends

Esteem Needs (Psychological) - prestige, feeling of accomplishment

Self-Actualisation (Self-fulfilment) - achieving one’s full potential

Physical / Physiological Benefits of Laughter

• Relaxes whole body

• Lowers blood pressure and increases heart rate

• Exercises muscles like the diaphragm 

• Can ease physical pain and improve pain threshold  

• Improve sleep and boost immunity

Psychological Benefits of Laughter

• Reduces feelings + physical repercussions of stress 

• Can improve memory and overall life satisfaction

Social Benefits of Laughter

• Brings people together

• Provides positive feeling to conversations

• Eases tense situations

Neurochemistry of Laughter

• Laughter triggers the release of endorphins

• The limbic system starts the emotional response, and the frontal lobe controls it.

Limbic System

• Complex set of structures in inner temporal lobe & bottom of frontal lobe

• Includes: amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia

• Handles basic emotions (fear, anger, pleasure)

• Receives signals from frontal lobe to trigger physical responses (e.g., laughter)

Too much stress…

• Prolonged stress response activation harms mental & physical health

• Impairs cognitive performance, learning, memory formation & recall

• Prolonged high cortisol levels linked to mental health disorders

Stress

A state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors perceived as challenging or too hard to cope with

Stressors

Stimuli that causes or produces stress and challenges our ability to cope

Cortisol

• Stress Hormone

• Stress response releases it into the bloodstream to activate a response to a stressor (fight, flight, freeze)

• Excessive amounts can impair immune system functioning, increasing vulnerability to disease

Feedback system

• Turns the stress response off

• If activated regularly, it can become damaged.

Serotonin

• Neurotransmitter and hormone

• predominantly produced in the brain & gut

• Essential for mood, appetite, digestion, sleep, and brain function. 

• Precursor for melatonin, it helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and the body clock

Dopamine

= Neurotransmitter and hormone that enhances the experience of happiness

• Involved in a wide range of activities and experiences 

• Motivates people to push through challenges and provides a reward for doing so

• part of the brain’s reward system - gives you pleasurable sensations

• Motor control + cognitive function

• Motivation and reward system

• Decision-making and impulse control

• Memory and attention

• Maternal and reproductive behaviours

Oxytocin

• Hormone that acts as neurotransmitter; regulates stress responses & calms nervous system

• Linked to bonding, generosity, trust

• Higher levels = greater love, responsiveness, gratitude in couples

• Brain monitors environment for threats & signs of safety using senses

• Secreted in response to stimuli perceived by brain (touch, eye contact)

• Produced when stressed to counterbalance cortisol effects + in response to touch and the right kind of eye contact

Endorphins

• Hormone that acts as neurotransmitter; carries neural messages throughout nervous system

• Released during pain/stress to reduce feeling & create wellbeing

• Boosted by exercise, chocolate, spicy food, massage

• Relieves pain as it's experienced: feel pain → nerves send signals to brain → brain releases endorphins to block nerve cells receiving pain signals

Psychology

= Study of the human mind and its wide-ranging functions and influences

• both a science and a profession

• Studies how individuals and groups to better understand how people, communities, and societies function and ways for them achieve them

Psychiatrists

= a medical professional specialising in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

• Medical doctors

• Prescribe medication

• Diagnose illness, manage treatment, and provide a range of therapies for mental illness

Psychologist

= someone who studies the human mind, emotions and behaviour, and how different situations have an effect on people.

• Not medical doctors

• Can't prescribe medication

• Focus on providing psychotherapy (talk therapy) to help patients

• More likely to see people with conditions that can be helped effectively with psychological treatments

Thoughts, Feelings, Behaviours

• Thoughts → assist us in making decisions and carrying out many tasks automatically

• Behaviours → our actions, and can be easily observed

• Feelings → the perceptions of events within the body or our internal state

Cognitive Dissonance

When thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are not aligned and cause tension

Ancient Greek Philosophers

• Psychology has its roots in the ancient Greek philosophers (e.g. Platos, Socrates, Aristotle)

• Dealt with questions about nature vs nurture and what has more of an impact on the people we become

• They look at motivation, memory, desire, free will and how we perceive the world.

William Wundt

• Widely regarded as the ‘Father of Psychology’

• Started the first lab to study human minds in 1879

• Established Psychology as a formal field of study

• Interested in Introspeciation (self-observation)

William James

• Regarded as the ‘Father of modern Psychology’

• Philosopher, Historian, and Psychologist

• Focused on the mind and body

• Wrote ‘Principles in Psychology’ in 1890 (first psychology textbook)

Types of Psychologists

1. Developmental Psychology

2. Forensic Psychology

3. Educational Psychology

4. Industrial/Organisational Psychology

5. Clinical Psychology

6. Neuropsychology

7. Sports Psychology

TIP TO REMEMBER:

"A Developmental psychologist found a crime, so she called Forensic psychology. The crime was at a school, so Educational psychology helped. The workplace stress needed Industrial psychology. One worker had anxiety, so Clinical psychology treated them. They also had a head injury, so Neuropsychology assessed it. To recover, they worked with Sports psychology."

7 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology

1. Psychodynamic

2. Behavioural

3. Cognitive

4. Biological

5. Cross-Cultural

6. Evolutionary

7. Humanistic

Pseudoscience

= A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

• Generally well-established beliefs that have not changed over centuries.

• May provide alternative explanations for things

Examples of Pseudosciences

• Astrology, Palmistry, Tarot Cards (predicting future events)

• Phrenology, Psychic surgery, Crystal healing (diagnosis & treatment)

• Clairvoyance, Psychokinesis, Precognition (physical/psychological phenomena)

Astrology = Believe the positions of stars/planets determine personality traits

Palmistry = Claims lines on hands reveal personality & someone's future

Tarot Cards = Believing that cards can show the future

Phrenology = Claims the shape of the skull reveals personality traits

Psychic Surgery = A pseudoscientific medical fraud where people create an illusion of performing surgery 

Crystal Healing = alternative medicine technique where people believe crystals can heal people

Clairvoyance = Claimed supernatural ability to know hidden information or see spirits. Not scientifically proven.

Psychokinesis = Where objects are supposedly objects are able to move as a result of the mind

Precognition = The psychic ability to see events in the future

Psychology as a Science

• Psychologists rely on researching thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that people have in common

• Psychologists study theories using a scientific approach and don’t jump to conclusions

• Critical thinking is crucial in all aspects of research in order to analyse & provide alternative explanations and construct ideas to be generalised.

Ethical Consideration

• They are the precautions taken to protect the physical and psychological well-being of the participant

• Guidelines must be followed when carrying out research, and must be approved by an ethics committee.

• Ethical standards help us make judgements (right vs wrong)

• Where possible, the experimenter must ensure all participants don’t experience any harm to protect their welfare.

• The individual rights of all participants must be respected by the researcher, as outlined in ethical guidelines relating to psychological research.

Confidentiality (Ethical Consideration)

• A participant’s rights to privacy in terms of access, storage, and disposal of information collected about them 

• Private information must not be shared without the participants consent

Voluntary Participation (Ethical Consideration)

A participant must willingly take part in an experiment, free from pressure or threats

Informed Consent (Ethical Consideration)

• Written and informed permission from each participant, stating they understand the necessary information about the study

• People under 18 or who have a severe disability must gain consent from a legal guardian

Withdrawal Rights (Ethical Considerations)

Participant is able to leave a study or withdraw their data at any time, without negative consequences or pressures to continue

Debriefing (Ethical Considerations)

• After the study, the researcher must inform participants of the true nature of the experiment & what was achieved from it

• Any learned responses should be extinguished if they could cause harm to the participants

Beneficence (Ethical Considerations)

• Research must be designed to maximise benefits to society & participants

• Harm must be minimised

7 steps of Research Method

1. Identify the problem

2. Formulate a hypothesis

3. Designing the research method

4. Collecting Date (experiment)

5. Analysing Data (Raw data/commenting on trends)

6. Interpreting Data (link to psychological theory)

7. Reporting the research findings

Variables

• any factor that can change in amount or kind over time

• Things or factors which are examined for change or manipulated throughout an experiment

• Cause (IV) + Effect (DV) = Relationship (Prediction from hypothesis: Anticipated change in results?)

Independent Variable (IV)

• Variable that is manipulated in order to see the effects it has on the DV

• As the researcher, this is what ‘I Vary’)

Dependent Variable (DV)

Variable that is measured to see if it was affected by a change in the IV

Aim (Research Question)

• Outlines the purpose of the investigation

• E.g. ‘The aim of this study is to explore the differences in gender regarding the motivation to play team sports.

Hypothesis

• A general prediction about the outcome of an experiment

• It should include:

  • How the IV will affect the DV

  • Whether the DV will increase or decrease participant outcomes

How to write a hypothesis

1. What is the IV & DV?

2. What is the population?

   • E.g. It was hypothesised/predicted/expected that population who have IV as experienced by experimental group will have prediction (more than OR less than) on DV than those who have IV as experienced by control group.

Experimental Group

• Group that experiences the IV in a manipulated way. 

• They are ‘experimented on’

Population

The larger group that a researcher is interested in

Sample

• A group that is a subset/portion of the population chosen to be studied for research purposes (participants)

• Must accurately represent the population

• The larger the sample, the more likely it will accurately represent the population

Participant Allocation

• Process of assigning participants to either the experimental group of the control group.

• All participants have an equal chance of being in either group.

Research Designs

• 3rd step in Psychological research is to decide on an experimental design (How participants are allocated in groups)

• Multiple ways to do this, both have advantages and disadvantages

• Types are Between-subjects design, Within-subjects design, & Mixed Design

Between-Subjects Design

• Participants are divided into groups, and they only take part in one condition/group (experimental or control)

• Advantage → Time efficient and cost effective (Don’t need to be matched on relevant characteristics + no need to repeat experiment)

• Disadvantage → Participant differences can affect results

Within-Subjects Design

• Same participants are in both the control & experimental conditions

• Participate in one condition first, and then the other

  Advantage → Less participants, eliminates participant differences between the groups

  Disadvantages → Takes more time + order effects may occur (The condition they do 1st may change results) + can lead to boredom and/or fatigue. 

Mixed Design

Combines elements of both within + between designs

Structure = 

1. Split people into groups

2. Everyone takes a pre-test

3. Each group gets a different treatment/condition

4. Everyone takes a post-test

Strengths → Allows researchers to compare treatments/conditions, people/groups and results over time

Limitations → Can be costly & time consuming + Demanding for researchers & assistants to be across mmmmm        multiple methods.

Our Brains

• Are like computers

• Receives and processes information from the sense organs + glands, and sends messages back to the body through the neural pathways.

• Our brains control our thoughts, behaviours, and feelings

Cerebral Hemispheres

• Cerebrum is divided into 2 major parts; the right and left cerebral hemispheres

• Longitudinal fissure is the deep groove down the middle of the brain 

Corpus Callosum 

• The brain’s hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum

• It is large, C-shaped nerve fiber bundle

• Allows neural messages to be sent back and forth between the 2 hemispheres

Contralateral Control 

• Contralateral means opposite

• The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body

• The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body