WQ - Part 1 General info

Describe every step of the water cycle. (ignore storage sites etc)
Evaporation
Condensation
Evapotranspiration
Transpiration
Sublimation
Precipitation
Runoff
Infiltration
Percolation
Groundwater discharge
Interception
Throughfall
Stemflow
Advection

Evaporation : Liquid water changes to water vapor via sunlight
Condensation : Water vapor turns liquid again due to cool air of atmosphere; turns to clouds
Evapotranspiration aka ET : Where water from the Earth's surface (includes lakes, plants etc) evaporates into the atmosphere
Transpiration (Where plants take up water from the soil, and eventually release it as vapor through their stomata
Sublimation : When ice turns directly to water vapor, ignoring the liquid phase. Only happens in low temps, or high pressure e.g. the poles.
Precipitation : When water vapor in clouds becomes heavy enough from collecting water, they fall down in the form of snow, hail, rain, or sleet.
Runoff : When water saturates the ground, making it flow across the surface to streams, lakes, etc.
Infiltration : Water infiltrates soil as it goes across the surface.
Percolation : When water moves through he ground (e.g. soil, rock, etc) and collect in aquifers. Aka subsurface flow
Groundwater Discharge : When water in aquifers become saturated enough, it flows back to the surface.
Interception : When precipitations is caught before hitting the ground. Throughfall : The precipitation that passes through or drips from a canopy to the ground. Main water source in forests.
Stemflow : The flow of intercepted water down the stem or trunk of a plant (concentrated!)
Advection : Horizontal transport of water (e.g. vapor) by wind and air currents through the atmosphere. If this wasn't there, water ditribution wouldn't be as global!

Tell me about barnacles' significance to humans and ecologically.

Humans : - Barnacles can pierce human skin, leading to infection. - Also causes biofouling -- aka accumulation on surfaces such as ships (causing drag etc.) - Some are eaten , and considered as delicacies.
Ecologically : - Are filter feeders of plankton etc, cleansing large amounts of water. - Are prey to starfish, crabs, etc. - Some are invasive .

Why does water get warmer as it goes deeper? What is this called?

As pressure increases with depth, water is compressed. This exerts “ work ” (energy) on water. This work is converted to heat , which increases the water temperature. This is called a adiabatic process, where heat doesn't exchange with its surroundings.

R vs K strategists (aka opportunistic life history strategy vs equilibrium life history strategy) (STATE/NAT)

R (aka opportunistic life history strategy): Produces many offspring with high growth rates; nowhere near carrying capacity, so can grow in population. Low probability of surviving to adulthood, small body size, and minimal parental care. K (aka equilibrium life history strategy): Invests more heavily in fewer offspring (due to being near carrying capacity ) with high probability of surviving to adulthood; can compete successfully for limited resources. Long life expectancy, larger body size, and extensive parental care .

Neuston

Organisms that float on the surface of water, or live right under the surface.

What are some adaptations animals have made for diving ? Give 2-3.

• Exchange a large amount of air on each breath - Up to 90% in each breath (humans exchange about 20%) - Blood with more oxygen carrying capacity - Heart rate slows during diving to reduce oxygen use - Blood flow restricted to non-essential body parts

Infauna vs epifauna

Infauna : Live and burrow at least partly inside / into the sediment beneath the surface (e.g. heart urchins, clams)
Epifauna : Live primarily on or attached to the benthos. (e.g. starfish, coral)

What is the role of coral in aquatic ecosystems and for humans?

• Provides shelter, breeding grounds, and resting grounds for organisms - Partially makes up sand (broken down coral skeletons.) - Supports filter feeders and photosynthetic plants - Helps supply fisheries, support businesses through tourism/recreation, and have possible medical potential. - Helps reduce impact from storms, waves, and floods-- saving infrastructure and lives

Tell me about coral bleaching and its cause.

Pollution, unsustainable farming practices, and climate change are causing ocean temps to rise, AND also causing acidification. - Causes coral bleaching -- when coral polyps expel their symbiotic algae in response to a stress event. Increased vulnerability, and risk of disease etc; death.

Primary producers, Primary consumers / examples in aquatic ecosystems

Primary producers : Autotrophs (plants, algae, some bacteria, etc) that convert abiotic energy sources ( sunlight ) into energy stored organically. Mostly, they also perform photosynthesis -- the use of that energy (& water !) to turn CO2 into (mostly glucose ), which they use for energy /to make substances like cellulose (used in building plant cell walls), and, a byproduct , O2 .
- E.g. phytoplankton, and algae
Primary consumers : Herbivorous organisms that feed on primary producers. Specialists are organisms that only feed on 1 type of producer, while generalists are those that eat many types.
- E.g. zooplankton, snails, and caddisfly larvae

Secondary consumers, Tertiary consumers, Quaternary consumers / examples in aquatic ecosystems

Secondary consumers : Organisms that eat primary consumers ; can be carnivores or omnivores.
- E.g. small fish, dragonfly naiads
Tertiary consumers : Carnivores (and sometime omnivores) that eat secondary and primary consumers.
- E.g. Water snakes, bullfrogs
Quaternary (apex) consumers : They eat tertiary consumers, and are often the top of the food chain.
- E.g. bullsharks, crocodiles, bald eagles

Waste water treatment and the 3 levels of treatment: Primary , Secondary , and Tertiary

Wastewater is defined as water that has been somehow used in some way. It can come from contaminated natural water e.g. rain, agricultural and industrial sources, etc. In treatment, there are three steps (or "levels"):
Primary treatment : Screens (with ~10mm openings) are used to remove majority of solid pollutants (transported to a landfill.) Then, the water is put into settling tanks (or clarifiers) and let sit, when scum forms on top, and sludge at the bottom. These are removed.
- This level removes up to 90% of suspended solids, 55% of coliform bacteria, etc, but isn't enough to ensure the water's fully safe.
Secondary treatment : This partially treated wastewater is forcefully mixed with bacteria (which digest the remaining pollutants) and oxygen (which help speed the bacteria up.) Then, the water is taken to settling tanks, where the scum/sludge settles and is removed.
- Now, the water is 90-95% pollutant-free.
Tertiary treatment : An optional , more advanced/rigorous level of treatment; Tertiary makes the water good for, e.g, drinking , and releasing into the environment. First, the water is passed through filters e.g. the bag filter method , which's cost-effective & versatile. In it, water is passed through a porous bag material e.g. nylon , polyester, etc that can be a range of particle sizes. Solids are trapped while clean water is left. Then, the water is disinfected via e.g. chlorine, UV, or ozone treatment.
Chlorine : Very commonly used. Chlorine is dumped in the water to disinfect it. - However , it can harm aquatic ecosystems; decholrination needed if the water is to be dumped out.)
UV : Water flows under banks of UV light, which sterilizes microorganisms (they're not killed, but now can't infect things.)
- However, the lamps require high maintenance.
- The water also needs good cleaning beforehand (any organic matter can shield microorganisms from the UV.)
Ozone : Ozone is highly reactive, and so destroys most microorganisms it comes into contact with.
- Not hazardous to environment etc, but expensive to maintain.

Potable water treatment

What is it/how does it work?

Potable water is defined as drinkable water with no threats or contaminants in it. Water is plenty, but access to potable water can be an issue. So, the water treatment process is:

Coagulation

After water reaches a treatment plant, chemicals (Aluminum sulfate, aka Al2(SO4)3) are added to it, which make dirt/other pollutants group together (is positively charged, and counteracts the negatively-charged sediment, neutralizing them and allowing them to collide)

Flocculation

Continuing coagulating. As water is mixed, particles continue grouping to form larger masses called flocs (which rise to the water surface.) More chemicals (e.g. iron salts like ferric chloride) are added (=further grouping.)

Sedimentation

Floc is allowed to settle to the bottom of the tank (it's heavier than water) and the less dirty water above it passes on to the next step.

Filtration

Several filters remove germs, parasites, chemicals and foul odors. Each filter (e.g. sand or paper) has a different pore/hole size than the last. - Another method: reverse osmosis, which forces water through semi-permeable membranes, filtering particules based on molecular weight. May be used to treat recycled or salt water.

Disinfection Strong oxidizers e.g. chlorine are introduced into the solution. They break down the cell wall of bacteria to kill them. (CONS: May form toxic, harmful byproducts or cause corrosion in pipes) [Image: https://assets.cram.com/04/75/06/40047506/40047506.png]

Sediment pollution and effects

Sediment is dirt, rocks and other matter that move from one place to another via wind or water erosion. Whenever erosion -- which creates sediment-- happens near a watershed , the newly made sediment travels toward the closest waterway and into places where loose dirt isn't secured. Sediment can block light, inhibiting the photosynthesis of aquatic plants, and make it hard for aquatic organisms to find their food or breathe (via gills.) It can also carry phosphorus, which makes algal blooms, or cause contaminated drinking water. Sediment pollution is the single most common source of pollution in U.S. waters.

Exotic vs Invasive species

Exotic (Aka introduced, alien, non-native, non-indigenous): An organism that originated somewhere different from its current location, and may've been intentionally introduced.
Invasive : Exotic species that've established and begun reproducing, outcompeting local species in space and resources, introducing diseases, etc.

What are 3 major human impacts on aquatic environments? Briefly tell me about each.

Overfishing : When vessels (e.g. from fisheries or illegal fishers, due to subsidies ($ incentive) , demand, etc) catch fish faster than stocks (reproduction) can replenish. Can create a neg. domino effect on food web, decrease food/economic security, and cause species to be endangered (e.g. some rays, turtles, sharks, etc.)
Pollution : Water is easily polluted because it dissolves things easily ("the universal solvent".) Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, poop, etc can sleep into water bodies, causing algal blooms. (agricultural pollution.) Also, oil spills can cause defects and other health issues for wildlife. Also, debris, which can harm/kill when it is ingested or entangled in an animal.
Climate change : Climate change causes rising sea levels (which exacerbate natural disasters e.g. hurricanes, flooding, landslides, etc), coral bleaching, and changed animal behavior (e.g. migration of species to where the water could be cooler.)
Acidification: As more CO2 is dissolved in water, it becomes more acidic. This makes it harder for corals etc to grow their protective shells, as carbonate ions are reduced.
Invasive species : Etc etc; you should know this.

Turbidity

A measure of water's clarity/cloudiness via suspended particles (sediment, algae, organic matter, etc.) Measured using nephelometer (quantifies scattered light to determine turbidity in units e.g. NTU.)

Lotic vs Lentic vs Estuary ecosystems

Lotic : Constantly flowing /moving water e.g. streams, rivers, etc. Has 2 main areas: Rapids (where water is fast enough to keep benthos clear) and pools (deeper areas where water flow is slower.)
Lentic : Standing (still) water e.g. lakes, ponds, or marshes
Estuary : An area of brackish water that has one or more streams/rivers flowing into it, AND that has a free connection to the open sea. They're VERY dynamic systems (daily changes in temp, salinity, turbidity, depth etc in response to the tides.) Therefore very strong season variation in fish communities.

What is a watershed / drainage basin? How do they help us and what do they do?

Watershed (aka drainage basin) : An area of LAND that channels rainfall, snowmelt, and runoff into a common body of water (e.g. a river, lake, or ocean.) They're defined by natural landforms e.g. mountains and hills, which direct the flow of water.
- Can supply us water, prevent floods, foster wildlife/ biodiversity, be good for recreation (e.g. hiking) etc.

Equation for exponential population growth

G=rN G = population growth per unit time r = per capita rate of increase (number of births in X time period divided by the total pop. size then) N = the number of individuals.

Intraspecific vs interspecific competition

Intraspecific competition : Competition of a limited resource between members of the SAME species
Interspecific competition : Competition of a limited resource between members of DIFFERENT species

OLD: What is watershed management? What's it for? What are 2-3 issues that come with watershed management?

Watershed management : The process of implementing land use & water management practices to protect & improve the quality of the water etc within a watershed by managing their use .
- e.g it includes conserving the water, resources, plants etc of the watershed for surrounding humans or making sure its natural resources are supported/protected.
Challenges :
- Climate change
- Degradation (caused by overuse of its natural resources)
- Development of urban centers & industries, which can cause pollution, habitat loss, the disposal of harmful waste into it, etc

What are the 6 levels of ecological organization?

Individual - One organism (multicellular OR unicellular.)
Population - A group of individuals of ONE species within a geographic area at the same time.
Community - Many populations that interact and inhabit a common environment at the same time, community-interacting with each other.
Ecosystem - All biotic AND abiotic components existing/interacting in one given area
Biome - A large land area with a distinct climate and plants/animal species. Comprises of many ecosystems.
Biosphere - Collection of all the ecosystems (biotic AND abiotic components) that can be found on Earth.

Tell me about the 3 survivorship curves. (STATE/NAT)

Type 1 : Basically k-selected species . High lifespan (dies off near older age); few offspring and high parental care.
Type 2 : Population that is not affected by age. Mortality rates are constant regardless of age.
Type 3: Basically r-selected species . Early on in life, very high morality rates, and lower rates later on (aka only some survive to adulthood); high offspring amounts and low parental care.

Primary vs secondary succession and relevance in aquatic ecosystems (STATE/NAT)

Primary succession : Pioneer species like red algae or seagrass colonize a previously uninhabited site (e.g. hardened lava flows from a volcano), typically with no soil. (on-land. Lichen, grasses, perennials, etc's decomposing bodies create new soil.) As dirt etc accumulates, intermediate species (shrubs, grasses, and shade-intolerant trees e.g. pines) appear, and over more time: the climax community e.g. shade-tolerant trees like oak or hickory.
Secondary succession : Primary succession, except the area was once inhabited, but has since been disturbed via wildfire, flood, etc.

Under what conditions does snow fall as precipitation? How about hail (and how do they grow)?

Snow : Snow forms in clouds when temps are below freezing (<32F) or via deposition (when vapor turns to ice, skipping the liquid stage.)
Hail : When thunderstorms ' updrafts (upward currents of air) carry raindrops to below-freezing parts of the atmosphere, where they freeze into hail.
Growth : Once hail is formed, it grows as supercooled water (aka water that's <32F) collects and freezes around it.

Under what conditions/ how does acid rain fall as wet deposition vs dry deposition?

Wet Deposition : When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air (largely by fossil fuel burning), are carried by wind, and mix/react with H20, O2, and other chemicals to become sulfuric and nitric acid-- falling as rain, snow, sleet, etc.
Dry Deposition : Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air (largely by fossil fuel burning), are carried by wind, turn to sulfuric and nitric acid, and land on cars, trees, buildings, etc. in the form of gasses and dry particles.

Open vs closed system

Open system : Energy can be transferred between the system and its surroundings. (e.g. stovetops are open because heat can be lost into the air. Same with animals.)
Closed system : Cannot transfer energy to its surroundings.

2 examples of: R and K strategists (STATE/NAT)

R : - Jellyfish - Frogs
K : - Sharks - Whales

Adaptations that marine animals might have

• More streamlined bodies (helps traverse water)
  - Gills take dissolved O2 in the water, diffuse it in the fish's bloodstream, and release CO2.
  - Swim bladder (a gas-filled organ that modulates buoyancy-- allowing the fish to stay at X water depth without having to maintain lift via swimming, which expends more energy. Also helps with stability.)

What are the 4 types of contaminants/threats in non-potable water?

• Organic contaminants ( Carbon -based compounds e.g. pesticides, plastics, and other industrial chemicals, often entering water via industrial and agricultural runoff. Causes many health issues, e.g. liver problems or cancer.)
  - Inorganic contaminants ( Non carbon-based compounds e.g. metals like lead, cyanides etc that can cause neurological defects in children, cancer, reproductive issues, etc. Many occur naturally and leach into freshwater sources. Others are used in fertilizers, mining, and other industrial processes that can run off into surface waters or penetrate through to groundwater.)
  - Radiological contaminants ( Naturally occurring radioactive elements e.g. plutonium or uranium that can enter water sources via absorption from soil or be discharged into water sources from hospitals or power facilities. E.g., Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers across the United States.)
  - Waterborne pathogens (Bacteria, viruses, parasites, etc that enter water supply via feces (e.g. from humans or animal processing facilities. May result in potentially fatal diseases e.g. diarrhea or dysentery.)

What are 3 cons/struggles of water treatment?

• Employee training of the complex systems/machine failures - Bacterial control - Monitoring and record keeping

What are the 4 types of invasive Asian carp?

• Bighead carp - Grass Carp - Silver Carp - Black Carp

Brackish water

Natural occuring water that is more salty than freshwater, but less salty than saltwater.

What is the freezing AND boiling point of water?

Freezing : 0 Celsius (32 Fahrenheit) Boiling : 100 Celsius (212 Fahrenheit)

Point source vs non-point source pollution

Point source : Comes from one single, identifiable source e.g. a factory or an oil spill.
Non-point source : Originates from many sources at the same time, and can be harder to pinpoint e.g. agricultural runoff.

Oligotrophic vs Mesotrophic vs Eutrophic

Oligotrophic : Typically large, deep, clear waters with limited plant/algae growth and low productivity. Adequate dissolved O2 throughout.
Mesotrophic : Medium productivity. In between ↕
Eutrophic : Typically smaller, shallower waters with mucky bottoms, extensive plant/algae growth and high productivity. More depleted dissolved O2 (especially near bottom.)

Wastewater

Wastewater is water that has been somehow used in some way. It can come from agricultural and industrial sources, contaminated natural water e.g. rain, etc.

Primary treatment of wastewater (What does it accomplish? What's involved in it?)

Screens (with ~ 10mm openings) are used to remove majority of solid pollutants (transported to a landfill .) Then, the water is put into settling tanks (or clarifiers) and let sit. Scum forms on top, and sludge at the bottom; both are removed.
- This level removes up to 90% of suspended solids, 55% of coliform bacteria, etc, but isn't enough to ensure the water's fully safe.

Secondary treatment of wastewater (What is its aim? What's involved in it?)

This step aims to remove biodegradable organic matter , nutrients (which cause eutrophication when released into the environment), etc. The partially treated wastewater from primary treatment is forcefully mixed with bacteria (which digest the remaining pollutants) and oxygen (which help speed the bacteria up.) BOD!!! Then, the water is taken to settling tanks, where the scum/sludge settles and is removed. - Now, the water is 90-95% pollutant-free.

Tertiary treatment of wastewater (What is it? What is its aim? What's involved in it?)

An optional , more advanced /rigorous level of treatment; Tertiary makes the water good for, e.g, drinking , and releasing into sensitive environments e.g. estuaries .
- It aims to remove anything the primary and secondary treatment didn't, and make absolutely sure it's ready for use. First, the water is passed through filters e.g. the bag filter method , which's cost-effective & versatile. In it, water is passed through a porous bag material e.g. nylon , polyester, etc that can be a range of particle sizes. Solids are trapped while clean water is left. After filtering, the water is disinfected via, e.g., chlorine, UV, or ozone treatment.
Chlorine : Very commonly used. Chlorine is dumped in the water to disinfect it/kills bacteria etc.
- However, it can harm aquatic ecosystems; decholrination is needed if the water is to be dumped out.
UV : Water flows under banks of UV light, which sterilizes microorganisms (they're not killed, but now can't infect things.)
- However, the lamps require high maintenance.
- The water also needs good cleaning beforehand (any organic matter can shield microorganisms from the UV.)
Ozone : Ozone is highly reactive , and so destroys most microorganisms it comes into contact with.
- Not hazardous to environment etc! But expensive to maintain.

What is water hardness ? What can cause it? What is it measured in?

The concentration of ( dissolved ) minerals e.g. calcium and magnesium in water. Can be caused when groundwater percolates into limestone, chalk, etc desposits which is picked up. Can be measured in ppm, mg/L, or gpg (grains per gallon).

Eutrophication/algal blooms What does HAB stand for?

When excess nutrients (nitrogen/ phosphorus ) in water cause excessive algal growth (algal blooms). As the algae decompose, causes HUGE amounts of BOD, leading to lowered O2 levels. HAB: Harmful Algal Blooms

What are 2-3 algal bloom-causing species?

Cyanobacteria (informally: blue-green algae)
- Causes most harmful algal blooms in freshwater. Diatom AND/OR Dinoflagellate
- Cause most harmful algal blooms in saltwater.

What percent of Earth’s oceans are covered in ice?

What percent of Earth's landmass does the ocean take up?

What percent of all water is the ocean?

Ice: ~12-15%; ~10 million square miles.

Landmass: 70.8%; 139.4 million square miles.

All water: 96.5-97%

OLD: Bankfull discharge What's bankfull? How frequent is it? What are its signs?

Bankfull discharge : The water that fills a channel to the top (to "peak flow").
Bankfull : Critical stage in the life of a stream or river where water fills the channel to the brim and begins to spill into the floodplain.
Frequency : Happens every 1.26-2 years. Signs : Breaks in bank slopes, scour lines (channels/holes left by erosion), changes in sediment/plants

What are BMP's, and their two types? Give me 2 examples for stormwater.

Best Management Practices . Techniques or structures used to control pollution, manage stormwater runoff, and improve water quality.
Types : Structural (e.g. basins, fences…) and non-structural (planning, protesting, etc.)
Examples : Rain gardens (depressions in land that rainwater rolls into, filtering pollutants, recharging groundwater, prevents floods etc), permeable pavement (same effects)

How are watersheds effected by urbanization?

The impervious materials e.g. pavement cause rapid storm water runoff (causes more flooding, erosion, sediment , etc) Also, UHI (Urban Heat Island) effect means the dark concrete etc absorbs and radiates lotsa heat, warming stormwater runoff, and upping temps of aquatic habitats (bad!)

What 3 elements are often limiting factors in freshwater? Which is the biggest? What is a limiting factor?

Nitrogen, (biggest to smallest order) Limiting factors restrict the growth of populations.

What's the Redfield Ratio?

Super consistent ratio of C : N : P in marine phytoplankton etc: 106 : 16 : 1

Inverted biomass pyramids How/why? What do they even mean?

When total mass of primary producers (e.g. phytoplankton) is less than total mass of primary consumers (e.g. zooplankton). Due to the fact that phytoplankton has a low standing crop (pop at any given time), but a super high turnover (reproduction) rate. The higher up the pyramid, the higher the animal mass and its standing crop (due to higher lifespans.) Most aquatic ecosystems have this .

Ecosystem engineer

Any species that creates, significantly modifies, maintains, or destroys habitats. Directly influences resource availability and shapes the physical environment for others.

Capillary action

The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces, (e.g. plant routes or porous materials) without external forces like gravity. Adhesive forces pull the liquid to the tube's walls, while cohesive forces pull it, making it go up (against gravity.)

Spring and fall turnover

When the entire water column is flipped top-and-bottom, redistributing oxygen and nutrients, replenishing deep-water oxygen, and often making the water murky. Happens due to the different densities of water (colder=more dense; sinks) from temp changes.

Why does CO2 make water more acidic?

It reacts with the water to become carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid's H ions cause the acidity.

What are the special properties of water? (5)

Universal solvent High specific heat High vaporization heat Strong cohesion/adhesion (surface tension!) Ice less dense than liquid water

What is greywater ?

Lightly used household water from showers, baths, and washing machines ( NEVER toilets ). Rich in nutrients/low in contaminants compared to sewage; ideal for reuse in irrigation for trees, shrubs, and landscapes

What is stratification?

When something's preventing the vertical mixing of water; Zones/"layers" formed based on density

OLD: What are wetlands defined as? What are their benefits?

Areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year.
Has hydric soil ; became anorexic Improves water quality, absorbs floodwater (like sponges), controls erosion (via the plant roots, which stabilize soil), and capture/store CO2 (carbon sequestration).