cognitive approch studies flashcards

Peterson & Peterson - limited duration of (STM)

Focus on the duration of short-term memory: participants memorize random tangrams and then count backward. They did it for 4 different rounds. 12,18,20, 24. The researchers could average the time it takes people to memorize the patterns, and then measure it after 20 seconds.

 Glanser and Cunitz - primacy and recency effect (military men study)

Glanser and Cunitz's research demonstrated that people tend to remember the first (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list better than those in the middle, highlighting the two distinct storage processes in memory. The study involved recalling words from a list after varying intervals, revealing the influence of item position on memory retention. Condition 2: delayed free recall - filler task in between writing down words that they heard, rather than doing a 30-second task. They are still successful at recalling, but they are no longer able to recall the words from the filler task. 

Evidence: dual task study - chess study

Participants & Procedure: Researchers tested 20 male chess players by asking them to memorize and recreate a chessboard while facing two different distractions. In the verbal condition, players repeated the word "the" (using their inner voice), while in the visual condition, they tapped a specific pattern on a keypad (using their inner eye).

Results: Players in the verbal group scored highly, correctly placing 16/25 pieces, whereas the visual group scored only 4/25. The distraction of tapping a keypad made it almost impossible for them to remember the board's layout.

Conclusion: The verbal group did well because their "inner voice" and "inner eye" could work separately without getting in each other's way. The visual group failed because both the tapping and the chess layout fought for space in the same "inner eye" system. This shows that our memory has specialized departments rather than a single bucket for all information.

 Bransford and Johnson (1972) - Schemas influence the encoding stage of memory (balloon image)

The aim of the image is the aim of the experiment. The study uses an independent-measures design with 5 groups of participants listening to a tape-recorded passage. After the passage, they had to interpret it and write down what they remembered. To conclude, the context before the message led to a difference compared to listening to the same passage twice.

Cohen (1981) – Schema, stereotypes, and confirmation bias

In this study, 96 college students watched a video of a woman having dinner, with half the group told she was a librarian and the other half told she was a waitress. The results demonstrated a clear pattern: participants’ recollections were skewed by their preconceived notions. Those who believed she was a librarian were significantly more likely to remember details, such as her wearing glasses or listening to classical music. At the same time, those who thought she was a waitress recalled seeing her eat a hamburger and drink a beer.

Alter & Oppenheimer, 2007

This lab experiment investigated how the visual difficulty of a font influences the type of cognitive processing used by 40 Princeton students. Participants were asked to complete the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), which consists of "trick" questions designed to prompt quick, intuitive responses that are often incorrect. Half of the students received the test in a clear, easy-to-read font, while the other half received it in a difficult-to-read font. The results were striking: only 10% of those using the easy font answered all questions correctly, compared to a significantly higher 65% success rate among those struggling with the difficult font.

Evidence: Loftus and Palmer (1974) – The Eyewitness Study

In this study, Loftus and Palmer investigated how leading questions and emotional language could distort a person’s memory of an event. They showed 45 students videos of traffic accidents and then asked them to estimate the cars' speeds using different verbs: "smashed," "collided," "bumped," "hit," or "contacted." The results showed that the more intense the verb, the higher the speed estimate, with "smashed" leading to the highest speeds and "contacted" the lowest

 Festinger (1956) - Belief disconfirmation paradigm

To investigate how a group of people with a strong, committed belief system reacts when that belief is clearly disconfirmed by reality (the "belief disconfirmation paradigm").

Independent Variable (IV): The occurrence of the disconfirmation event (specifically, the arrival of the predicted "end of the world" date and the failure of the spaceship to appear).

Dependent Variable (DV): The behavioral and psychological response of the cult members (measured through levels of cognitive dissonance, changes in belief, and proselytizing/recruitment efforts).

Initial Crisis: When the prophecy failed at midnight, the group experienced high levels of cognitive dissonance (extreme tension and anxiety). Rationalization: To resolve the tension, the group "added consonant information" by claiming their devotion had saved the world.Behavioral Change: Despite being previously secretive, the members suddenly became very public, seeking media attention and new recruits. This was a strategy to reduce dissonance; if they could convince others that their belief was true, it would feel more valid to themselves.

Evidence:  Freedman & Fraser (1966) – induced compliance paradigm – foot-in-the-door compliance technique

This field experiment aimed to test the "foot-in-the-door" technique by investigating if agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of complying with a much larger one. Researchers asked an experimental group of participants to sign a safe-driving petition; two weeks later, these same participants, along with a control group, were asked to place a large, unsightly "Drive Carefully" sign on their lawns. The results showed a significant difference in compliance: over 55% of the experimental group agreed with the large sign, while fewer than 20% of the control group did so. The researchers concluded that signing the petition initially created a new self-image for the participants as supporters of road safety. When faced with the second, more demanding request, refusing would have created an uncomfortable inconsistency between their past behavior and their current choice. To maintain a stable sense of self and avoid the psychological tension of being "inconsistent," participants agreed to the larger request, effectively aligning their actions with their newly established identity.

 Cahill & McGaugh (1995) – Adrenaline, amygdala, and emotional memory

The aim is to investigate the relationship between the amygdala and adrenaline. There are two groups, and they are divided by conditions. One group hears a boring story, and the other group hears a more exotic story. The participants who heard the more arousing story remembered it longer because it was entertaining. 

space shuttle study

 evidence suggesting that memories are not more accurate but possibly more rehearsed, leading to more confidence. Concerns about cultural values and the experience's relevance to the person. And in this case, there is doubt and confusion among college students about the space shuttle disaster, which can create uncertainty and lead them to conclude that they are less accurate than before. 

Other research, such as the gun robbery study, may show that they are less susceptible to areas of uncertainty in that space.