2. Molecules to metabolism

what are biological processes regulated by

enzymes whose expressions are controlled by gene activation

what is an organic compound

compound that contains carbon and is found in living things

excpetions to what makes up an organic compound

carbides (CaC2), carbonates , oxides of carbon and cyanides (CN)

why does carbon form the basis of life

as it can form large and complex molecules via covalent bonding

how many covalent bonds can a carbon atom form

4 and all are stable

what carbon compounds are life based on

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid

carbohydrates: what, composition, function (3)

most abudent compound found in nature, composed of C,H,O atoms, primary function=energy source.Also important as a recognition molecule (e.g. glycoproteins) and as a structural component (part of DNA / RNA)

Lipids(what, functions (3)

* Non-polar, hydrophobic molecules which may come in a variety of forms (simple, complex or derived)
* major component of cell membranes (phospholipids and cholesterol)
* long-term energy storage molecule (fats and oils)
* Also may function as a signalling molecule (steroids)

nucleic acids: what, functions (2)

* Genetic material of all cells and determines the inherited features of an organism
* DNA codes for protiens while RNA has an active role in the manufacturing of proteins

protiens: what, composition, fiction

* Make over 50% of the dry weight of cells; are composed of C, H, O and N atoms (some may include S) 
* Major regulatory molecules involved in catalysis (all enzymes are proteins)
* May also function as structural molecules or play a role in cellular signalling (transduction pathways)

which of the carbon compounds are made of monomers that join together to form large polymers

all but lipids as Lipids do **not** contain a common recurring monomer. however several types contain fatty acid chains as part of their overall structures eg. triglyceride

what makes up a carbohydrate +structure formed

monosaccharides, mostly form ring structures but can exist in different 3d units

what makes up a lipid

fatty acids and monoglycerides

what makes up protiens

amino acids which join together to form polypeptide chains

what makes up nucleic acid

nucleotides which join together to form polynucleotide chains

name for 2 suger units and may sugger units

disaccharide, polysaccharide

3 examples of monosaccharides

ribose, glucose, galactose

what are fatty acids

long chains of hydrocarbons that may or may not contain double bonds (unsaturated vs saturated)

structure of a general amino acid

the 3 components of a nucleotide

a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base

polymers of glucose

glycogen, cellulose, starch

3 main types of lipids and an example of each

* **Simple (neutral) lipids** – Esters of fatty acids and alcohol (e.g. triglycerides and waxes)
* **Compound lipids** – Esters of fatty acids, alcohol *and* additional groups (e.g. phospholipids and glycolipids) 
* **Derived lipids** – Substances derived from simple or compound lipids (e.g. steroids and carotenoids)

what are amino acids joined by

peptide bonds

fusion of 2 amino acids

= dipeptide+water

what does the shape of a protien depend on

order of amino acids

how are polynucleotide chains formed

bonds between the pentose sugar and phosphate group

phosphodiester bond

bonds in DNA

* two complementary chains will pair up via hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases to form double strands Which may then twist to form a double helical arrangement

What was vitalism theory

• organic molecules cannot be produced from inorganic molecules

• organic molecules can only be synthesised by living systems As they posses a certain “vital force” needed

how vitalism was disproved

* In 1828, Frederick Woehler heated an inorganic salt (ammonium cyanate) and produced urea( a waste product of nitrogen metabolism that is eliminated by the kidneys in mammal?


* The artificial synthesis of urea demonstrates that organic molecules are not fundamentally different to inorganic molecules

metabolism

the sum of chemical reactions that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life

2 key functions of metabolic reactions

* They provide a source of energy for cellular processes (growth, reproduction, etc.) 
* They enable the synthesis and assimilation of new materials for use within the cell

anabolic reactions

reactions that synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones. This synthesis usually occurs through condensation reactions (monomers covalently joined togther+water molecule produced, reduction reaction). This uses energy to construct new bonds.

how are each, monosaccharides,amino acids, glyceroland fatty acids, nuceoltides joined

glycosidic linkage

peptide bonds

ester linkage

phosphodiester bonds (phosphate of one to a sugar of another)

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catabolic reactions

the set of metabolic reactions that break complex molecules down into simpler molecules typically via hydrolysis reactions.

hydrolysis reaction

reactions require the consumption of water molecules to break the bonds within the polymer. releases energy when bonds are broken and typically involves oxidation reactions

example of anabolic and catabolic

a= gluconeogenisis

c+glycolysis

matter

what all (living and nonliving) substances are made of

electrons circle the nucleus in what

orbitals

periodic table groups and rows

same group is same number of electrons in outer shell

same row is same number of orbitals

isotopes

different number of neutrons and can cause radioactive decay

biologically significant trace elements

Ca calcium

Fe iron

Na sodium

P hospherus

S ulfer

Compare and contrast carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

all macromolecules

all contain C, H, O

​ carbohydrates and lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen WHILE proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur[1]

→​ the monomers for carbohydrates are monosaccharides WHILE the monomer for proteins are amino acids, and for lipids they are fatty acids and glycerol[1]

→​ carbohydrates are mainly used for energy in cells WHILE proteins are used as building blocks and lipids are for energy storage