Psychology: Development, Personality, and Social Cognition Key Concepts

Cross-Sectional Studies

Observe different subjects at one point in time. Useful for identifying age-related differences, but does not track changes over time.

Longitudinal Studies

Involves observing the same subjects over a period of time. This method provides insights into developmental changes and patterns.

Nature

Refers to genetic inheritance and biological factors that influence development.

Nurture

An organism's learned and environmental experiences.

Schemas

Mental structures that organize knowledge. They help individuals understand the world.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of altering schemas to fit new information.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget proposed four stages: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational, each characterized by different cognitive abilities.

Eight Stages

Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.

Trust vs. Mistrust

0-18 months

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

18 months-3 years

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-5 years

Industry vs. Inferiority

6 years to puberty

Early Childhood

Characterized by rapid physical and cognitive development, including language acquisition and social skills.

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict style where parents demand obedience and enforce rules without much warmth or dialogue. Kids raised this way often follow rules but may struggle with self-esteem and social skills due to the lack of emotional support.

Authoritative Parenting

A balanced approach where parents set clear rules and expectations while also being supportive and responsive to their children's needs. This style encourages open communication, allowing kids to express their thoughts and feelings, which helps them become independent and socially competent.

Neglectful Parenting

When a parent is uninvolved or indifferent to their child's needs, both physically and emotionally. This can mean not providing enough supervision, guidance, or emotional support, which can lead children to feel ignored and unsupported in their development.

Permissive Parenting

Parents are very nurturing and flexible, allowing children to make their own decisions with few rules. While this approach can foster creativity and independence, it might also lead to challenges with discipline and boundaries.

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and caregiver, which can affect future relationships and emotional health.

Conservation Tasks

Piaget's tasks that demonstrate a child's understanding of quantity and volume, showing cognitive development stages.

Adolescence

The questions 'Who am I, and where am I going?' reflect a common challenge for teenagers as they discover their individuality. They need to learn what makes them unique, establish their own values and beliefs, and figure out their place in the world.

Emerging Adulthood

A phase of life between the late teens and mid-twenties, where individuals explore their identity and independence before fully committing to adult roles like career and family.

Physical and Cognitive changes

Your body and mind go through changes; physically, you might notice wrinkles or less energy, while cognitively, it can take longer to remember things or learn new skills.

Wisdom

The ability to use knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments in life.

Personality

Refers to the individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Trait

A characteristic or quality that defines how a person behaves or thinks, like being friendly, organized, or adventurous.

Openness to Experience

Reflects creativity and a willingness to try new things.

Conscientiousness

Indicates a person's level of organization, dependability, and discipline.

Extraversion

Measures sociability and enthusiasm; high scorers are outgoing and energetic.

Agreeableness

Reflects how cooperative and compassionate a person is towards others.

Neuroticism

Indicates emotional stability; high scorers may experience anxiety and mood swings.

Id

The raw, primal part of our psyche that drives our basic needs and instincts.

Ego

The voice in your head that helps you make decisions based on logic and reason, rather than pure emotions or instincts.

Superego

Represents the part of our mind that acts like a moral compass, guiding us on what is right and wrong based on societal values and rules.

Levels of Consciousness

Freud proposed three levels: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Conscious

In one's awareness.

Preconscious

Out of awareness, but able to be retrieved.

Unconscious

Out of awareness, and unable to be retrieved.

Defense Mechanisms

Strategies used by the ego to resolve conflicts among the id, superego, and reality.

Self-concepts

Refers to how individuals perceive themselves, which is central to humanistic psychology.

Congruence

Occurs when a person's self-concept aligns with their experiences.

Incongruence

Occurs when there is a mismatch between our beliefs, values, or self-image and our actual experiences or actions.

Hierarchy of Needs

A ladder of human needs that starts with essential survival needs like food and safety, and moves up to higher needs like love, esteem, and ultimately self-actualization, which is achieving your full potential.

Eyesck's Theory of Personality

Suggests that our personalities can be described using three main traits: extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism.

Psychoticism

(tendency towards aggression and interpersonal difficulties)

Social Cognition

Is how we understand and interpret the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of ourselves and others in a social context.

Person Perception

The process of forming impressions of others, influenced by stereotypes and biases.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group that can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

Attitudes

Evaluative judgments about people, objects, or ideas, consisting of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.

Cognitive

The belief or idea.

Affective

The emotional feeling.

Behavioral

The preferred action.

Strength

How firmly held or how long it lasts.

Accessibility

How easily it is to think about/bring to mind.

Ambivalence

How stable/unstable the belief is.

Explicit

Conscious and describable.

Implicit

Unconscious and automatic.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes through communication, influenced by factors like credibility and emotional appeal.

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of behavior.

Internal Attribution

Driven by thoughts, emotions, personality, and ability.

External Attribution

Driven by situational demands and environmental factors.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to take credit for success and to deny responsibility for our failures.

Conformity

The tendency to align attitudes and behaviors with group norms, often influenced by social pressure.

Obedience

Following direct commands from an authority figure, exemplified by Milgram's shock experiments.

Social Contagion

The spread of behaviors, emotions, and ideas through social networks.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making.

Social Facilitation

Refers to improved performance in the presence of others.

Loafing

Refers to reduced effort in group tasks.

Intergroup Relations

How different groups or communities interact with each other, which can include cooperation, conflict, or competition.

Social Identities

The part of an individual's self-concept derived from group memberships, influencing behavior and attitudes.

Ingroup

Favoring one's own group.

Outgroup Bias

discriminating against others.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Interpersonal Attraction

Factors that lead to liking or loving someone, including proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness.

Platonic Love

A deep emotional connection between people that is not based on physical attraction or romantic desire.

Investment Model

Long-term relationships are like investments. More likely to remain when investment is high vs low and likely to remain when alternatives are few.

Social Exchange Theory

A theory that posits social behavior is the result of an exchange process to maximize benefits and minimize costs.