Sociolinguistics

World Englishes

What are some ways of looking at English in the world?

English can be studied according to:

• Number of speakers

• Native vs. non-native speakers

• Geographical areas (Europe, America, Africa, Asia, etc.)

• Countries where it is an official language

What is the most spoken language in the world by native speakers?

Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken language when only native speakers are counted.

What is the most spoken language when both native and non-native speakers are counted?

English is the most spoken language in the world when both groups are included.

Why is counting English speakers difficult?

Because it is not always clear who should be considered an English speaker (native speakers, learners, or people with a certain proficiency level).

What are two ways to count English speakers?

Researchers can count:

1. The total number of speakers.

2. The percentage of speakers in a population.

Which countries have the highest number of English speakers?

Countries with the highest numbers of English speakers include the USA, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the UK, and the Philippines.

Why can a country have many English speakers even if English is not the native language?

Because English can be used as a second language (L2) or as an official language for communication, education, and administration.

What does “English in the world: Number of speakers (%)” show?

It shows the percentage of people who speak English in different countries and dependencies.

What are “Native (L1) speaker Englishes”?

they are varieties of English where English (or an English-based creole) is the native language of the majority or an official language of the country.

What is the difference between L1 English countries and official English countries?

In L1 English countries, English is the first language of most people; in official English countries, English has an official role but may not be the majority language.

What are countries in which English enjoys a special status?

They are countries where English is an official language (de facto or de jure). Anglosphere countries are those where English is the main native language.

Why has English become a global language?

Because the number of English speakers has increased greatly, and today non-native speakers outnumber native speakers. English is used worldwide as a lingua franca.

What is a lingua franca?

A lingua franca is a language used as a common means of communication between people with different native languages.

Why is English considered a unique global phenomenon?

Because English has spread beyond its original countries, creating contact with many other languages and developing new varieties, functions, and forms.

What does Global Englishes study?

Global Englishes studies the worldwide use of English, including World Englishes, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English as an International Language (EIL), globalization, language policy, and education.

How did the number of English speakers change historically?

Between the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1603) and the beginning of the 21st century, English speakers increased from about 5–7 million to around 2 billion.

In how many territories is English spoken today?

English is spoken in approximately 75 territories as either an L1 (first language) or an institutionalised L2 (second language).

In which fields is English often used as an institutionalised L2?

English is used as an institutionalised L2 in areas such as government, law, and education.

What are Post-colonial Englishes (PCEs)?

They are varieties of English shaped by the sociohistorical conditions of the places where they developed, especially former colonies.

Why is the idea of only one “correct” English considered wrong?

Because English has many valid varieties; other forms are not “broken” or “deviant”, but different ways of using the language.

What are Post-colonial Englishes mainly the result of?

They are mainly products of language contact between English and other languages, with different degrees of influence.

What is the first English diaspora?

The first diaspora was the large-scale migration of native English speakers from England, Scotland, and Ireland, which created L1 varieties of English.

Which countries developed L1 varieties of English through the first diaspora?

Countries include Australia, New Zealand, North America, South Africa, and the Caribbean.

What is the second English diaspora?

The second diaspora refers to the development of Post-colonial Englishes (New Englishes), which are mainly L2 varieties of English created through colonisation and language contact.

Where did Post-colonial Englishes develop?

hey developed mainly in Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific, including countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, India, Singapore, and the Philippines

What is the difference between the first and second diaspora?

The first diaspora involved native English speakers moving abroad (L1 Englishes), while the second diaspora involved non-native communities adopting English through colonial contexts (L2 Englishes).

What did the first English dispersal involve?

It involved large-scale migrations of mother-tongue English speakers from England, Scotland, and Ireland.

How did L1 varieties of English develop?

Migrants brought their own dialects, which gradually developed into new L1 varieties of English.

How was the second English dispersal different from the first one?

The second dispersal happened mainly during the 18th and 19th centuries and had different causes and results, leading to the development of Post-colonial Englishes (L2 varieties).

What are the three categories in Strang’s model (1970s)?

Strang’s model divides English into:

• ENL (English as a Native Language)

• ESL (English as a Second Language)

• EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

What does ENL, ESL, and EFL mean?

• ENL: English is the first/native language of the majority.

• ESL: English is used as a second language in multilingual countries.

• EFL: English is learned and used as a foreign language.

Why is Strang’s model considered problematic?

Because it does not consider non-native English-speaking communities living in ENL countries, such as French Canadians, Native Americans, Australian Aboriginals, and Indian communities in Britain.

What is Strevens’ genetic model (1980)?

It is a model that shows how world Englishes developed from British English and American English after American English became a separate variety.

Why is Strevens’ model considered problematic?

Because it gives too much importance to American English, creating a “super-imposition” of American English on other varieties.

What is Kachru’s Three Circles model (1985/1986)?

It is a model that categorises English varieties into:

• Inner Circle

• Outer Circle

• Expanding Circle

What is the main idea behind Kachru’s model?

English belongs to all its users, not only native speakers. It recognises localised and indigenised varieties of English around the world.

What are the limitations of Kachru’s Three Circles model?

It is based mainly on geographical and historical factors and does not fully consider bilingualism, proficiency levels, or the grey areas between circles.

What is McArthur’s (1987) model of World Englishes?

it is a circle model that divides English varieties into different regions and includes subvarieties such as Aboriginal English and Black English Vernacular.

What is the main problem with McArthur’s model?

he concept of World Standard English is problematic because it does not currently exist as a clearly identifiable variety.

what is Schneider’s Dynamic Model (2003, 2007)?

is a model explaining the development of Post-colonial Englishes through historical, social, political, and linguistic processes.

What are the five phases of Schneider’s Dynamic Model?

The five phases are:

1. Foundation

2. Exonormative Stabilisation

3. Nativisation

4. Endonormative Stabilisation

5. Differentiation

What factors influence the development of Post-colonial Englishes according to Schneider?

They are influenced by:

• Historical and political events

• Identity construction between settlers (STL) and indigenous groups (IDG)

• Language contact and use

• Development of new linguistic varieties

What does Schneider’s model show about English varieties?

It shows that new Englishes develop gradually through colonisation, language contact, identity changes, and the creation of local norms.

How can language be connected to imperial power?

Imperial systems often impose a standard version of the metropolitan language and marginalise other varieties as incorrect or impure.

What is the difference between “English” and “english” in post-colonial studies?

“English” refers to the standard language inherited from the imperial centre (e.g. British English), while “english” refers to the different varieties transformed and created in post-colonial societies.

Why are post-colonial varieties of English important?

Because they show how English has been adapted to different cultures and contexts, creating new identities and innovative forms of expression.

Is there only one English language in the world?

No. There are many Englishes because different communities have developed their own varieties, such as Jamaican English, Canadian English, Māori English, and Kenyan English.