Chapter 21: Unsettled Prosperity: From War to Depression

Post World War 1

The war brought an end to social progressivism and returned to a shrunken government power, moving away from economic regulations towards big business. Conservatism boomed with the red scare and a new wave of racism.

Power of Unions

Had grown as result of the Democratic war effort, the AFL had nearly 3 million by the armistice. Now, they had to secure wartime achievements, but they were facing suspicion. In 1919 over 4 million workers went on strike, 1 in 5 wage workers. Were for basic workers rights, not revolution.

Rising Communism

Bolshevik groups started to do international outreach. Despite outsized reaction, american communists were few, 13,000 of 63 million US adults. But small groups exist, and amid strikes they threatened to mail bombs to high profile politicians, succeeded in a few cities but most were discovered by postal workers

The Red Scare

In an almost disproportionately response, a wave of panic over communism started, many people preaching Americanism and decrying groups against capitalism (socialists and communists). Especially as bombings happened, this fear gripped America. Allowed for attacks on any amount of radicalism, establishing anti-radicalism groups. Especially targeted immigrants who were pretty powerless. An example of this is Sacco and Vanzetti being sentenced to death for murders they may not have done due to against their beliefs and births.

Palmer Raids

Palmer was nearly a victim of one of these bombings, and he vowed to crack down on radicals. Assigned Hoover to lead these raids, which especially targeted at risk groups like immigrants whose rights could be violated.

High Racial Tension

The Great Migration had only been increased on due to the war, and now they were competing with whites (including immigrants) for jobs and housing. Race riots had already happened in 1917 St. Louis and tensions stayed elevated as they had gained patriotism in the war and weren’t looking to be second class citizens anymore

Red Summer

Summer of 1919, bloody race battles fought in 20+ cities as riots sparked. Worst in Chicago when white teens stoned a black teen to death. Lynchings spiked and homes were destroyed.

Attacks on African Americans

(Sensationalized (false) rape charges spark violence in Tulsa (black wall street destroyed), arson and murder, not an uncommon situation. Police sided with violent whites.

American Plan

Strategies employers used to tamp down labor movements. Established contracts that forbid workers from joining unions.

Downswing of Labor

Massachusetts Governor dissed striking police officers and was rewarded with the vice presidency by republicans. The Supreme Court once again it was suppressing trade in Coronado Coal Company v. United Mine Workers of America (1922). This lead to decline of union membership

Welfare Capitalism

A system where employers took care of their employees, building a loyal workforce. Better wages and benefits offered, such as pension and all that jazz. In practice, it applied to less than 5% of employees so wasn’t very effective and corporations were more likely to look out for themselves

International Interests

Remained focused on Latin America, State Department advances US business interests abroad, especially by pushing foreign loans to nations they viewed as less than. Eventually pulled back in the Western Hemisphere, with things such as Good Neighbor Policy (we’ll keep our hands off)

Tensions were rising in the paciifc, with treaties breeding resentment between Japanese and US

Dollar Diplomacy

A foreign policy meant to stabilize foreign economies in turn benefiting the US. Had poor results in actuality. Loans just paid local elite instead of stimulating economy, which lead to dictatorships.

Haitian Occupation

Was part of the US’s foreign policy as they felt like they were saving these savages, occupying the island. They exploited it, including soldiers exploiting Haitian women sexually.

Electoral Politics

Exemplified turn to the conservative side, Democrats ran out a similar platform to Wilson (League of Nations) in James M Cox in 1920, Republicans ran out Warren Harding who promised normalcy, winning in a landslide.

Harding’s Domestic Policy

Favored business, put Herbert Hoover as Secretary of Commerce creating trade associations for industries, setting standarads and wages. Hoover thought voluntary cooperation would have better results than regulation

Lobbyists

Were getting more and more common, becoming pervasive in congress for various interest groups

Corruption between Business and Government

Widespread in Harden years along with public relationships. Teapot dome was scandal where government oil was secretly being leased out and Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall was convicted of taking bribes.

Calvin Coolidge

Took office after Harding died of heart attack. Advocated for limited government and business tax cuts, campaigning in 1924. Democrats were too split to really stand up to him, continuing decline of progressive spirit

Increasing Productivity

Mechanization became more and more efficient with the assembly line and electrization. Gains and production increased, leading to explosion of consumption until the Great Depression.

Growth of Large Scale Corporations

Large businesses continued to replace small businesses. Consolidation eventually meant the two hundred largest firms controlled half of nonbanking corporations by 1929. Chemical and electrical industries were especially susceptible to mergers. Additionally, they started to internationalize, opening up plants and factories in other countries thanks to dollar diplomacy.

Agricultural Economy

Tumbled after the war and never really recovered. Still employed a quarter of American workers, and they struggled as Europe recovered their agricultural strength, edging them out of the market. Coal and textiles similarly struggled, and the bottom 40% of Americans did not enjoy the prosperity of this decade.

Consumer Culture

Especially in the middle class, branded products became more and more common, enjoyed luxuries such a s fridges and vacuum cleaners. Advertising grew as an industry, everyone was trying to sell something, even political campaigns. Consumer credit allowed those less fortunate to access a modern life, but came with perilous debt.

• Radio hastened spread, growing rapidly, various stations give news, entertainment etc,

• Movies became a cultural touchstone, moving to California, lead by eastern european jewish immigrants

Hollywood

Movie capital of the world by 1920, producing 90% of films, attracting audiences of all classes. Flapper fashion became more popular, jazz also rose to common culture.

Push of Film and Radio

Politicians saw advantages of pushing American media internationally, expanding inlfuence abroad more subtly

Automobiles

Revolutionized American life. Ford offers first affordable vehicle for families in 1908 with the Model T, and industry grew rapidly in the 20s. Ripples through economy, bolstering steel, oil rubber, chemical, glass, highways, making billions of dollars. Encouraged suburban sprawl and shopping centers, and were frequently bought on credit.

Railroads faltered as Americans moved to the roads, infrastructure popping up in gas stations, drive in restaurants, etc.

Suburban Sprawl

Massive due to combination of credit, automobiles, new consumer spending. Cities exploded outward, population growing massively and towns springing up

Women in the 1920s

Politicians feared the voting block while progressives hoped they’d pursue reform, some did take up, forming organizations such as Women’s Joint Congressional Committee who fought for healthcare and the Sheppard-Towner Federal Maternity and Infancy Act in 1921 providing funds for nurses, clinics, and improved healthcare for poor people.

Other focused on legal equality, pushin for equal rights amendment to be added to the constitution, but was rejected for labor reasons not wanting to undermine protections for women.

Also fought for reporductive rights though early movemnt based in eugenics (Margaret Sanger)

National Association of Colored Women

Fought for suffrage yes, but also racial equality because disenfranchisement was systemic, and tried to get white counterparts to fight against jim crow laws

New Woman

An image that was sold as a way to market to women, free of restriction of victorian era, ready to join men in consumption. Had heroes such as Amelia Earheart and sports such as golf. More college attendees.

The reality was less glamorous however, often limited to a very small sect of women. Were confined to gendered occupations still and even women of color could not get jobs as secretaries or clerks.

Still signalled a shift from Victorian modesty.

Rural vs. Urban

By 1920 census, urbanites outnumbered rural folks. Urbanites mocked small town life in novels, viewing them as small minded and overly relgiious. Reflected a larger fracturing of identities when cultural battles became more and more prominent.

Prohibition

Rural and nativist protestants had long fought for prohibition and 1920 created the perfect storm to gain/keep traction. Big players were Womens Christian Temperance Union and Anti-Saloon League. Some progressives joined in 1910, because they believed it kept immigrants inpoverished and saloons bred poltical corruptiuon. Then the war limited barley and consumption went down, with german brewers being turned on due to their nationality.This all came to a head with the passage of the 18th amendment in 1917, going into effect 1920. Was primarily supported by small town Protestants and disliked by middle class urbanites and immigrants

Speakeasies

Existed in all major cities with massive amounts of alcohol, which in turn funded several major crime people such as Al Capone

Results of Prohibition

Momentum fizzled and even if short term it decreased drinking it quickly went back upwards. Even still, did not reach ore-prohibition levels until it was eventually repealed in 1933. It affected the middle class the least as they could afford higher prices for illegal alcohol

Evolution in Schools

Fundamentalist Protestants fought to keep them from teaching evolution over the biblical story of creation. In 1925, Tennessee outlawed evolution and the ACLU (formed in response to red scare to protect free speech).

The Scopes Trial

A Tennessee teacher named John Scopes in Dayton taught evolution and was put on trial, turned into a nationwide media circus. He was convicted as guilty though it was later overturned on a technicality. Still the law remained on the books.

Nativism

As always, immigrants were blamed for the country’s “moral decline” especially catholics and jews from southern and eastern europe. There had been restrictions on Asian immigration but with the National Orgins Act (1924), limiting it to 2% of an outdated population in 1890. Then, they limited it even further with 150k per year from Europe.

Laws did not restrict immigrants from the western hemisphere which lead to a massive influx of latin american immigrants. (1 million from 1900-30). Nativists and labor folks lobbied congress to stop this but congress listened to employers who wanted cheap labor.

States also imposed similar restrictions, California especially passed laws against asians living in the state, making it difficult for them to establish themselves.

KKK Resurgence

1920s, nationally. Clung to policies based in nativism and the way things had been, glorified by media so exceptionally popular among White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. Expanded harassment to jews catholics and immigrants, arson, economic boycotts, intimidation. Over three million levels and dominated some localities.

Declined rapidly post 1925 due to mismanagement and infighting, but signalled a dangerous shift to white supremacy and antisemitism reflected by the wealthy of the era such as Henry Ford.

Election of 1928

Was a stormy election, Democrat voter base split from whites in the south and northern immigrants. They nominated Irish Catholic Al Smith who faced opposition from protestants. Herbert Hoover was the Republican nominee, a longtime public servant who had organized and won acclaim in WW1. Won in a landslide, even breaking solid south from post-reconstruction. Smith mainly suceeded in large cities and nowhere else.

Harlem Renaissance

Among this conflict, Black Americans were owning and defining their experiences in America. This movement centered in New York City due to great migration. Notable voices included Langston Hughes, famed poet and many other artists.

• Claude McKay and Jean Toomer (writers)

• Jacob Lawrence (painter)

• Alain Locke (philosopher)

• Zora Neale Hurston - Grew up in a Black community in Florida, travelling and writing of her experiences as a black woman.

Jazz

A major symbol of the Harlem Renaissance. Developed from other music genres such as ragtime and blues. Mainly black performers but some white people brought classical european training to the scene. First emerged in New Orleans pre WW1 but in the 1920s artists like Louis Armstrong mastering the soloist improvisation. Jazz followed the routes of the great migration. Was still viewed as lesser, slumming.

Radio and records also popularized this new sound, which eventually caught onto big recording studios. Became signature music of the decade

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)

Sparked by Harlem Renaissance for poltiical change, lead by Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey to mobilize black workers. urged them to move back to Africa bc white people would never treat them right. Soon had 4 million members and published newspapers and had funds for ship company for african trade. He was targeted by FBI and quickly declined. Contributed to pan-africanism, that black people should unify worldwide.

Economic Troubles

While the economy had been good, warnings were on the horizon post-war with farmers trapped in a cycle of debt and saturated markets lead to struggles. Firms and farms went bankrupt and laid off workers, banks couldn’t collect debts and failed. The stock market collapsed, sending the country into depression. Lost 40% of value in fall of 1929, but believed effects would be bried. Then turned into 4 year global crisis. Americans cut back, contributing to the cycle. Banks failed and accounts vanished.

Early Depression Years

Middle class workers weren’t super worried but still barter economies and people became stingy. People turned to private charities quickly overwhelmed and there was no institutional aid. The birthrate dropped as everyone had to adjust, even those who stayed afloat. Women kept out of jobs reserved for male breadwinners, even teaching jobs. hit nationwide at different levels, government change was needed