Studied by 11 people
Self-report techniques
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviors and experiences related to a given topic.
Questionnaire
A set of written questions (sometimes called items) used to access a persons' thoughts/experiences
Strengths of questionnaires
Cost effective
Can gather large amounts of data quickly
Can be completed without the researcher being present
Weaknesses of questionnaires
Can produce response bias
P.ps may misunderstand the question or read it incorrectly
Demand Characteristics / Social Desirability may occur
Open Questions
Questions with no fixed answer/response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.
Advantages & Disadvantages of an Open Question
Get more information
Produces qualitative data - depth and detail
People can miss them out as they can't be bothered to answer them
Harder to analyse
Closed Question
Questions with a fixed answer/ the choice of response is determined by the question setter.
Advantages & Disadvantages of a Closed Question
People have to same perception of the Q&A
Quick and easy to answer
Quantitative data is easier to analyse
Not detailed or in depth answers
Don't find out the meaning behind the answer
Interview
A live encounter (face to face or on the phone) where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts/experiences. They can be structured, semi structured or unstructured.
Structured Interview
Made up of pre-determined questions and are asked in a fixed order. Basically like a questionnaire but conducted face to face.
Unstructured Interview
Works like a conversation. There are no set questions. There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed and interaction tends to be free flowing.
Semi-structured Interview
There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate.
Strengths & Weaknesses of Structured Interview
Straight forward to replicate
Reduces differences between interviews
Easier to analyse
Get answers you're looking for
Get less information as P.ps can't deviate from the point
Don't find out people's worldwide views
Strengths & Weaknesses of Unstructured Interview
Can get more detailed answers as people can elaborate
More flexible as you can gain insight
Not easy to replicate
Not easy to analyse as you get irrelevant information
Experimenter effects can occur
Leading Questions
Encourages P.ps to give a particular answer e.g don't you think...?
Ambiguity
Questions which can be interpreted in various ways. They can mean different things to different people.
Loaded Questions
They are questions which contain emotive language which is likely to produce an emotional reaction in the respondent.
Aim
A general statement that the researcher intends to investigate.
Hypothesis
A detailed statement which is clear, precise and testable that states the relationship between variables being tested.
Directional Hypothesis
The researcher makes it clear what difference is anticipated between the 2 conditions or groups. (One tailed).
Non-directional Hypothesis
Simply states that there is a difference but not what the difference will be. (Two tailed)
Null Hypothesis
There will be no relationship between the 2 variables.
Meta-analysis
A particular form of research method that uses secondary data. Data from a large number of studies which have involved the same research question and method are combined.
Quantitative Data
Data that focuses on numbers and frequencies which can be counted. e.g. experiments, questionnaires and psychometric tests.
Qualitative Data
Data that describes meaning and experiences which is expresses in words e.g. case studies, interviews and observations.
Primary Data
Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher. It is also known as field research.
Secondary Data
Information that has already been collected by previous researchers. It is also known as 'desk research' and can be found in journal articles, books or websites.I
BPS
British Psychological Society
Informed Consent
Participants should be told what they are letting themselves in for. Only then they are in a position to give informed consent. If under 16 consent must be obtained from their parents.
Deception
Information is withheld from participants: they misled about the purpose of the study and what will happen during it.
Right to Withdraw
Participants should be told this at the start of the research. No attempt should be made to encourage them to remain.
Protection from harm
Participants should not be put through anything they wouldn't normally be expected to.
Competence
Psychologists must not attempt to carry out research unless they are qualified to do so.
Debrief
Researchers should discuss the aims of the research with the p.ps making sure they know how they've contributed to meeting the aims
Variable
Any "thing" that can vary or change with in an investigation. They are generally in experiments to determine if changes in one result in changes to another.
Independent Variable - IV
An aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured.
Dependent Variable - DV
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any result/change on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
Operationalising Variables
The process of devising a way of measuring a variable. It is a clear statement of what the variable is.
Lab Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV while maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
The Criteria for a Lab Experiment
The IV is manipulated by the researcher to produce a change in the DV
All other variables that might influence the results i.e. extraneous variables are held constant or eliminated
Participants are randomly allocated to a condition.
Advantages of a Lab Experiment
Can establish cause and effect
Few if any extraneous variables
Easy to replicate
High internal validity
Disadvantages of a Lab Experiment
Lacks ecological / external validity
Demand characteristics can occur
Behaviour in a lab is often different
Experimenter effects can occur
Can lack generalisability
Low mundane realism
Field Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Advantages of a Field Experiment
More ecologically/externally valid
Fewer demand characteristics
Replication can occur to some extent
Fewer experimenter effects
Mundane realism
Disadvantages of a Field Experiment
Chance of extraneous variables
More time consuming
Ethical issues (informed consent)
Need a skilled researcher
Natural Experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not caused by the researcher as it would have happened if the researcher wasn't there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.
Advantages of a Natural Experiment
No demand characteristics
No researcher effects
Fewer ethical issues
Allows P.ps who wouldn't normally be tested to take part.
High external validity
Disadvantages of a Natural Experiment
Lack of control (extraneous variables)
Short term behaviour may be displayed
No random allocation can create confounding variables
Harder to replicate
Quasi Experiment
The IV has not been determined by anyone the variables simply exist e.g. being old or young.
Extraneous Variables
Any variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV if not controlled. However they can be maintained or eliminated.
Confounding Variables
A variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV. However it can't be controlled.
Control Condition
The IV isn't changed and provides a baseline measure. The condition is in a repeated measures design that provides a baseline measure of behaviour.
Experimental Condition
Where you manipulate the IV. The condition is in a repeated measures design containing the IV as distinct from control.
Baseline Measure
Result established from control condition when no manipulation of IV occurs. Allows comparisons to be made.
Random Allocation
People are chosen randomly e.g. names from a hat meaning there's an equal chance of being selected.
Ecological Validity
How methods can be applied to real life settings.
External Validity
How valid results are outside of a research setting.
Demand Characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or research situation that can be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation leading them to changing their behaviour.
Experimenter Effects
Where the experimenter changes a persons views usually sub-consciously through body language.
Experimental Method
The type of experiment you do.
Experimental Designs
How you carry the experiment out.
Independent Groups Design
Each participant either does the control condition OR the experimental condition. All participant experience one level of the IV only.
Advantages of Independent Groups Design
Reduces demand characteristics
Quick to administer
Could be used for all tests
Prevents order effects
Disadvantages of Independent Groups Design
Individual differences can occur
Lots of P.ps are required
Time consuming/expensive
Repeated Measures Design
Each participant does the control condition AND the experimental condition.
Advantages of Repeated Measures Design
Quick to administer
No individual differences
Fewer P.ps are required
Disadvantages of Repeated Measures Design
High possibility of demand characteristics
Order effects can occur (but counterbalancing can be used to overcome this)
Can't be used for all tests
Matched Pairs Design
Participants are matched on key characteristics. One participant does control condition and the other does the experimental condition.
Advantages of Matched Pairs Design
Less possibility of demand characteristics
Prevents order effects
No individual differences
Disadvantages of Matched Pairs Design
Time consuming
Lots of P.ps are required
Hard to match P.ps on all variables
Can't be used for all tests
Not very economical
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design e.g. ABBA where when group does the experimental condition first where as the other does the control condition.
Order Effects
A confounding variable arising from the order which participants take place in the different conditions e.g. boredom.
Naturalistic Observation
Take place in a setting where behaviour would usually occur.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations
High external validity
Easy to apply in everyday life
Hard to replicate
Extraneous variables can occur
Controlled Observation
Some control over variables takes place to observe how people may interact/behave. They take place inside and outside of a lab.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Controlled Observations
Easy to replicate
Less Extraneous Variables
Findings can't be applied to all real life settings
Participant Observation
The researcher is involved in/with the experiment. The researcher joins the group either overtly of covertly.
Advantages & Disadvantages Participant Observations
Experience the same situation which gives insight which increases validity
Can get too attached to people and lose objectivity
Non-Participant Observation
The researcher is not involved in what is going on. The researcher is external to what is going on/the people being observed.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observations
Allows researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from P.ps
Researcher has less insight
Covert Observation
Where the researchers status is not made clear to the group and the researcher doesn't get consent.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Covert Observations
No participant reactivity
Natural Behaviour - Increases validity
Ethics - People might not want to be observed
Overt Observation
The researcher is open about their intentions and seeks consent. People know they are being observed.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Overt Observations
More ethically acceptable (have consent)
Can be influenced as they know they're being watched
Structured Observations
Key influence of the design of an observation is how the data is recorded. Unstructured- Everything is written down; produces qualitative data Structured - Only specifics are recorded; produces quantitative data
Behavioural Observations
To produce a structured record of what the researcher hears or sees. The target behaviour is broken into behavioural categories that are observable and measurable. All target behaviour is included.
Sampling Methods
Event Sampling - Counting the time a particular behaviour occurs in a group/individual. Time Sampling - Recording behaviour with a pre established time frame.
Inter-Observer Reliability
Two or more researchers observe the same behaviour at the same time then compare and amend results to create correlations.
Content Analysis
A kind of observational study where behaviour is observed indirectly in pictorial or verbal material.
Target Population
The entire group a researcher is interested in. The researchers wishes to draw conclusions from only the people in the group.
Bias - Sampling
When certain groups are over or under represented with in the sample selected. It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular experiment can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of people is representative of the population.
Inter-Rater Reliability
Correlating the judgements of two or more ratings of behaviour when using a rating scale.
Peer Review
The assessment of work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research set for publication is high quality.
How is psychological research published?
Initially in journals which will then be translated into textbook information or be discussed at conferences,.
Aims of Peer Review
To allocate funding properly and appropriately. It stops researchers spending lots of money on investigations which may encounter problems. Also it helps to develop the areas of psychology that need to be developed,
To validate the quality of research. It establishes more accurate to inter-observer reliability. Additionally it makes sure that you are measuring what you set out to measure.
To suggest amendments and improvements. It allows researchers to get more accurate results as it eliminates potential problems.
Evaluation of Peer Review
Helps to establish validity and accuracy of research because more than one person will carry out the experiment therefore allowing the data to be correlated.
The anonymity could lead to them being overcritical . Changing data which is right and doesn't need to be changed could give inaccurate results and may not be objective as they should be
Publication Bias can occur where only positive results or attention grabbing results are published. By publishing data which doesn't support a hypothesis, it allows it to have more understanding and knowledge.
Case Study
A research method that involves a detailed study of a signal individual, institution or event.
Sampling Techniques
The method used to select people from the population.
Opportunity Sampling
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.
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