Chapter 1 - The Human Organism

Histology

examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them

gross anatomy

the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope

systemic anatomy

the study of the body system by system

system

a group of structures that have one or more common structures

regional anatomy

the study of the body are by area

surface anatomy

the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures

Anatomy

the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure

Developmental anatomy

the branch of anatomy that studies structural changes of an individual that occur from conception to adulthood

Embryology

subspecialty of development anatomy; studies changes from conception through the eighth week of development

Cytology

examines the structural features of cells

physiology

the scientific investigation of of the processes or functions of living things; major goals: to understand and predict the body's responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment

cell physiology

examines the processes occurring in cells

systemic physiology

considers the functions of organ systems

Neurophysiology

focuses on the nervous system

cardiovascular physiology

deals with the heart and blood vessels

Pathology

the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes resulting from disease

Exercise physiology

focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise

6 levels of organization of the body

1. chemical level

2. cell level

3. tissue level

4. organ level

5. organ system level

6. organism level

Chemical level

The chemical level involves interactions between atoms, which are tiny building blocks of matter; The function of a molecule is intimately related to its structure

Cell level

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of plants and animals. Molecules combine to form organelles (or little organs), which are the small structures that make up cells

Tissue level

A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them; The numerous tissues that make up the body are classified into four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

Organ level

An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions

Organ system level

An organ system is a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit

Organism level

An organism is any living thing considered as a whole—whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism is a complex of organ systems, all mutually dependent on one another

Integumentary system

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands

Skeletal system

Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints

Muscular system

Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

Lymphatic system

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs

Respiratory system

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages

Digestive system

Performs mechanical and chemical process of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs

Nervous system

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

Endocrine system

A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other function. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, thymus, hypothalamus, pineal, parathyroids, pancreas, testes or ovaries, adrenals, that secrete hormones

Cardiovascular system

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

Urinary system

Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine

Female reproductive system

Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures

Male reproductive system

Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis

6 characteristics of life

organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction

Organization

refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions

Metabolism

refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in an organism. It includes an organism's ability to break down food molecules, which the organism uses as a source of energy and raw materials to synthesize its own molecules

Responsiveness

an organism's ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes

Growth

refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement of all or part of an organism

Development

includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death; Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and morphogenesis

Differentiation

change in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized

Morphogenesis

change in the shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism

Reproduction

the formation of new cells or new organisms

Homeostasis

the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body; For cells to function normally, the volume, temperature, and chemical content of this fluid—conditions known as variables because their values can change—must remain within a narrow range

set point

Homeostatic mechanisms normally maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value

negative-feedback system

Most systems of the body are regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms, which maintain homeostasis. Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. Has 3 components: a receptor, a control center, and an effector

receptor

monitors the value of a variable

control center

receives information about the variable from the receptor, establishes the set point, and controls the effector

effector

produces responses that change the value of the variable

Positive-feedback system

are not homeostatic and are rare in healthy individuals; positive implies that, when a value deviates from normal, the system responds to make the deviation even greater. Positive feedback therefore can create a cycle that leads away from homeostasis and, in some cases, results in death

anatomical position

refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward

supine

lying face upward

prone

lying face downward

Right

Toward the right side of the body

Left

Toward the left side of the body

Superior

higher; A structure above another

Inferior

lower; A structure below another

Cephalic

head; Closer to the head than another structure (usually synonymous with superior)

Caudal

a tail ; Closer to the tail than another structure (usually synonymous with inferior)

Anterior

before; The front of the body

Posterior

The back of the body

Ventral

belly; Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior)

Dorsal

back; Toward the back (synonymous with posterior)

Proximal

nearest; Closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure

Distal

distant; Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure

Lateral

side; Away from the midline of the body

Medial

middle; Toward the midline of the body

Superficial

toward the surface; Toward or on the surface

Deep

deep; Away from the surface, internal

frontal

forehead

orbital

eye

nasal

nose

oral

mouth

cervical

neck (anterior view)

pectoral

chest

sternal

breastbone

mammary

breast

abdominal

abdomen

umbilical

navel

pelvic

pelvis

inguinal

groin

pubic

genital

otic

ear

buccal

cheek

mental

chin

clavicular

collarbone

axillary

armpit

brachial

arm

antecubital

front of elbow

antebrachial

forearm

carpal

wrist

palmar

palm

digital

fingers and toes

manual

hand

coxal

hip

femoral

thigh

petellar

kneecap

crural

leg (anterior)