Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Lecture 1 flash cards

List the components of the mammalian cell

Mammalian cells consist of several key components:

Nucleus - contains genetic material

Mitochondria - ATP production

Ribosomes

Rough ER - has ribosomes on surface and synthesises proteins

Smooth ER - Synthesis of lipid & steroid production

Golgi apparatus - modification of some proteins

Lysosomes - digestion of foreign debris

Centrsome

Plasma Membrane

• separates cell from environment

• Controls passage of substances

• Phospholipid bilayer

What are the 4 types of selective permeability

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Exocytosis & Endocytosis

Active Transport

Simple Diffusion

• Passive

• small components easily pass

Exocytosis & Endocytosis

• Active

• Taking or bringing something

• Uses vesicles (small membrane bound structure that holds things)

Active Transport

• requires pumping of molecules against their concentration gradient, using energy (ATP) to move substances into or out of the cell.

The Nucleus contains (6 total)

Endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleolus - produces ribosomal subunits and rRNA, and loosely hanging genetic material (chromatin)

Chromatin - condenses into chromosomes at division

Nucleoplasm - gel like substance in the nucleus

Nuclear pore - allows mRNA to escape into the cytoplasm

Nuclear envelope (membrane) - is continuous with ER membrane

Mitochondria contains…

• Smooth outer membrane

• highly folded inner membrane

  • electron transport chain enzymes

ATP Production

the process of generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respiration, which occurs in the mitochondria and involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis

• Location: Cytoplasm

• Start: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)

• End: 2 Pyruvate (3C)

• ATP Yield: Net 2 ATP (4 produced, 2 used)

• Other Products: 2 NADH (used in aerobic respiration)

• Fate of Pyruvate:

  • Aerobic: Converts to Acetyl-CoA for Krebs cycle

  • Anaerobic: Converts to Lactate (animals) or Ethanol + CO₂ (yeast)

• each step is catalyzed by its own enzyme ( 10 total enzymes)

Pyruvate Oxidation

Pyruvate oxidation is the linking step between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle in aerobic respiration. It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC).

What reaction converts pyruvic acid into acetyl CoA and where does this occur in the cell?

Pyruvate+NAD++CoA→Acetyl-CoA+CO2​+NADH

Mitochondrial Matrix

Kreb’s/Citric Acid/ Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle

-3CO₂

-3 NADH

-1 IAOH

-1 ATP

2 x

Electron Transport Chain

• Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane

• Start: NADH, FADH₂, O₂, ADP + P

• End: ATP, H₂O, NAD⁺, FAD

• ATP Yield: ~34 ATP per glucose

• Process Steps:

  1. NADH & FADH₂ donate electrons to the ETC.

  2. Electrons move through complexes, pumping H⁺ into the intermembrane space.

  3. O₂ is the final electron acceptor, forming H₂O.

  4. H⁺ flows through ATP synthase, generating ATP (chemiosmosis).

• Other Products: H₂O, recycled NAD⁺ & FAD

• Requires Oxygen? ✅ Yes (Aerobic Process)

What are transcription factors?

Transcription factors - proteins that regulate transcriptions of genes

What are the two types of transcription factors, and what do they do?

Enhancer - bind stimulatory (activator) factors

Repressor - bind inhibitory (silencer) factors

In what 3 ways can activators stimulate transcription factors?

• Recruit transcriptional machinery

• Chromatin remodeling

• Stimulate RNA polymerase

What are the 3 big steps of translation?

1. Initiation (starting it)

2. Elongation

3. Termination

What are Post-Translational Modifications?

Regulates protein compartmentalization/trafficking and activity

What is Phosphorylation of a transcription factor?

A common way to turn things on/off (change activity of a protein)