Chapter 4: Theories of Cognitive Development (Part 1)

Q: What is cognitive development?

A: The study of thinking, problem-solving, and information processing across the life-course (we're studying infancy to adolescence). It is distinct from studies of emotional, physical, or social development, though overlaps may exist.

Q: What is a theory?

A: A theory is a well-supported explanation of an aspect of human behaviour, based on a hypothesis and supported by evidence.

Q: What can a psychological theory typically do?

A:

1. Consistently describe a behaviour/phenomenon accurately.

2. Allow for accurate predictions of future behaviour.

Q: How are theories used by scientists, practitioners, and policy makers?

A: They are used to:

• Create testable hypotheses and choose areas for future research

• Understand human behaviour

• Anticipate what might happen next

  • Prevent bad things from happening

  • Develop interventions/solutions for when bad things happen

Q: What is one of Piaget’s core ideas about children from birth (1st Core Idea)?

A: Children are active learners; he saw them as “little scientists” who make predictions about the world, test predictions through their actions, and draw conclusions based on what they find.

Q: According to Piaget, how do children often learn without being taught (2nd Core Idea)?

A: Through play and exploration, children expand their knowledge of the world.

Q: What does Piaget say about children’s motivation to learn (3rd Core Idea)?

A: Children are intrinsically motivated to learn; no incentive is needed to explore, as they are naturally inclined to ask questions and learn.

Q: What is the "constructivist" view of cognitive development?

A: It sees children as actively constructing knowledge through their actions and experiences, rather than just passively responding to the world.

Q: How would dropping a baby bottle be interpreted before Piaget?

A: The baby is just making a racket, and adults might tell them to stop.

Q: How does Piaget’s perspective interpret a baby repeatedly dropping a bottle?

A: The baby is exploring the physical properties of the world around them, which is an important part of their cognitive development.

Q: According to Piaget’s stage theory, how do children at different stages think?

A: Children at different stages don’t just know less; they think in qualitatively different ways (e.g., a 4-year-old only considers their own perspective, while an 8-year-old can consider the perspectives of others).

Q: How do the characteristics of each stage influence thinking?

A: They influence thinking across diverse topics and contexts (e.g., a 4-year-old considers only their own visual perspective, emotions, etc.).

Q: What happens when children transition between stages?

A: They fluctuate between old and new ways of thinking.

Q: Does every child follow the same stage pattern according to Piaget?

A: Yes, every human child follows the same stage pattern.

Q: What is assimilation in continuous cognitive development?

A: Assimilation is interpreting new information or experiences using existing concepts and knowledge structures.

Q: How does the pufferfish example illustrate assimilation?

A: A child knows fish swim underwater, have fins, and are cute. When seeing a pufferfish, they apply the same concept because it swims underwater, has fins, and is cute.

Q: What is accommodation in continuous cognitive development?

A: Accommodation is adjusting one’s understanding of the world in response to new information and experiences.

Q: How does the dolphin example illustrate accommodation?

A: A child knows fish swim underwater, have fins, and are cute. When seeing a dolphin, they initially conclude dolphins are fish, but then adjust their understanding when told that dolphins are mammals.

Q: How does experiencing new information about dolphins lead to updating the concept of “fish”?

A: The concept of “fish” is updated to include a new qualifier: swim underwater, have fins, are cute, and breathe underwater.

Q: What is equilibration in continuous cognitive development?

A: Equilibration is balancing assimilation with accommodation to create a stable understanding of the world.

Q: What is equilibrium?

A: Equilibrium is when an existing knowledge structure is working as it should, helping us predict and make sense of new experiences.

Q: What is disequilibrium?

A: Disequilibrium occurs when new information challenges our knowledge structure and doesn’t fit in.

Q: Why is disequilibrium important?

A: Recognizing that current ideas need updating motivates cognitive development.

Q: What is the age range for Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A: Birth to age 2.

Q: What is the age range for Piaget’s preoperational stage?

A: Age 2 to 7.

Q: What is the age range for Piaget’s concrete operational stage?

A: Age 7 to 12.

Q: What is the age range for Piaget’s formal operational stage?

A: Age 12 to adulthood.

Q: What does babies’ early behaviour reflect in the sensorimotor stage?

A: It reflects their continually developing “sensorimotor intelligence.”

Q: What do babies learn during the sensorimotor stage?

A: They learn about their bodies, the world, and the rules that govern their interaction.

Q: What concept is demonstrated when a baby understands that something still exists even though they can’t see it?

A: Object permanence.

Q: What does understanding object permanence indicate about a baby’s cognitive development?

A: It shows that the baby can mentally represent objects that are not currently visible.

Q: According to Piaget, around what age do babies develop an understanding of object permanence?

A: Around 8 months, when babies start searching for objects that disappear.

Q: Did babies’ understanding of object permanence have limitations according to Piaget?

A: Yes, babies still had strange and fascinating limitations in their understanding.

Q: What is the first part of the A-not-B error?

A: An object is hidden in location A, and the baby is allowed to search and find it.

Q: What happens during the test trial of the A-not-B error?

A: The object is hidden in location B while the baby watches.

Q: How do 8-month-old babies typically respond in the A-not-B error test trial?

A: They continue to search for the object in location A.

Q: What cognitive abilities begin to develop in the preoperational stage?

A: Children start to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought.

Q: What is symbolic representation in the preoperational stage?

A: Using one thing to stand for another.

Q: How do children demonstrate symbolic representation?

A: They engage in simple pretend play, use simple shapes to represent more complex objects when drawing, and show rapid expansion of vocabulary.

Q: Why is human language considered symbolic?

A: Because words stand for objects, actions, and ideas.

Q: What is a notable limitation in children’s representational thinking during the preoperational stage?

A: They are egocentric.

Q: What is egocentric?

A: Typically only consider their own point of view

Q: What does egocentrism in toddlers’ communication involve?

A: Focusing only on their own thoughts, goals, and intentions.

Q: How might egocentric toddlers reference things in conversation?

A: They may reference things the listener doesn’t know about.

Q: What is centration in the preoperational stage?

A: The tendency to focus on only one prominent feature of an object or event.

Q: What is the concept of conservation?

A: The idea that changing the appearance of an object does not necessarily change its other key properties.

Q: What cognitive abilities develop during the concrete operational stage?

A: Children become increasingly able to reason logically about concrete objects and events.

Q: What cognitive challenges remain in the concrete operational stage?

A: Children still struggle with hypothetical, abstract, and systematic thinking.

Q: What is the task in Piaget’s pendulum problem?

A: To determine what factors are important in determining how long it takes the pendulum to swing through a complete arc.

Q: What aspect of children’s performance was Piaget most interested in?

A: How children went about answering the question, not just whether they got it right or wrong.

Q: How do children in the concrete operational stage typically approach the pendulum problem?

A: They try a few combinations at random, fail to consider all possibilities, and draw faulty conclusions.

Q: How do children in the formal operational stage approach Piaget’s pendulum problem?

A: They systematically test hypotheses, such as testing all weights using one rope before moving on to the next rope.

Q: What conclusion do children in the formal operational stage reach in the pendulum problem?

A: They reach an evidence-based conclusion: it’s the length of the rope that matters.

Q: What new cognitive abilities emerge in the formal operational stage?

A: The ability to reason about hypothetical situations, entertain multiple perspectives, and engage in careful systematic thinking.

Q: Does every individual reach the formal operational stage?

A: No, not everybody reaches this stage.

Q: What is counterfactual reasoning?

A: The ability to entertain hypothetical "what if" questions that run counter to facts about what actually happened or what typically happens.

Q: How do children in the concrete operational stage handle counterfactual reasoning?

A: They tend to get stuck on the counterfactual premise (e.g., “feathers can’t break glass!”).

Q: How do children in the formal operational stage handle counterfactual reasoning?

A: They are able to use logic despite the counterfactual premise.

Q: What are examples of close counterfactuals?

A:

• "Almost hit the bullseye"

• "Almost won the race"

• "Easily could have gotten a green gumball"

• "Easily could have arrived on time"

Q: In the race scenario, which animal “almost” won the race?

A: The pig.

Q: In the race scenario, which animal “easily could have” won the race?

A: The cheetah.

Q: How were children’s counterfactual expectations interpreted in the race scenario?

A: The pig represented an “almost” counterfactual expectation (proximity-based), while the cheetah represented an “easily could have” counterfactual expectation (ability-based).

Q: Why is Piaget considered one of the most significant figures in developmental psychology?

A: He is arguably the most significant person in the history of developmental psychology and ranks among the top ten or higher for psychology in general.

Q: How did Piaget’s ideas change the world?

A: His ideas are still influential in psychology, cognitive science, education, etc., and he flipped centuries of thinking about child development on its head by recognizing the mysterious and amazing phenomenon that is cognitive development.

Q: What is one limitation of Piaget’s theory regarding explanation of development?

A: It describes child behaviour in detail but doesn’t really explain why changes occur.

Q: How did Piaget’s focus on individual learning limit his theory?

A: He overlooked the role of social learning.

Q: Are Piaget’s descriptions of children’s thinking at each stage always consistent?

A: No, there are lots of exceptions to his broad ideas, and he underestimated children at all ages.

Q: Was Piaget completely right about cognitive development?

A: Not exactly; it’s complex.

Q: What has eye-tracking research revealed about infants’ understanding of hidden objects?

A: Infants can track objects they can’t see under some circumstances, but not as consistently or universally as adults do.

Q: What question does eye-tracking and infant looking-time research raise about Piaget’s ideas?

A: How do we know what the babies were thinking?

Q: What is a key caution when interpreting infant looking-time research?

A: Stay critical and ask for data to back up interpretations, just like with any other research.

Q: Was Piaget correct about everything in his theory?

A: No, like Freud, he was wrong about a lot of things.

Q: Why is Piaget still considered an important figure in psychology despite being wrong about some details?

A: Because he introduced ideas for others to test and refine, providing a framework for exploring new questions and making new discoveries.

Q: What did Piaget’s theory accomplish that good theories should do?

A: It gave a framework for exploring new questions and making new discoveries.