AP Psychology Unit 3 Flashcards: Development and Learning

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards for AP Psychology Unit 3 covering Developmental Psychology, Language, Social-Emotional development, and Learning Theories (Classical and Operant Conditioning).

Developmental psychology

The study of the many changes individuals experience as they grow physically, mentally, and socially throughout the journey of human growth.

Nature vs. Nurture

A developmental theme looking at how genetics and the environment work together to shape who an individual is.

Stability vs. Change

A developmental theme exploring which parts of personality stay the same over time and which ones change.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

A developmental theme examining whether development is a smooth, gradual process or if it occurs in distinct stages.

Longitudinal research

A research method that follows the same group of people over a long period of time to see how skills develop.

Cross-sectional research

A research method that looks at different groups of people at various ages all at one point in time.

Cohort effect

Observed differences between age groups that reflect the unique experiences and cultural context of each generation rather than true developmental differences.

Prenatal development

The stage of physical development lasting from conception up until birth.

Teratogens

Harmful substances like drugs, alcohol, and certain medications that can cause significant birth defects if the fetus is exposed during pregnancy.

Fine motor skills

The coordination of small muscles, such as those in the hands and fingers, used for tasks like writing or buttoning clothes.

Gross motor skills

The use of larger muscle groups for movements like crawling, walking, and jumping.

Rooting reflex

An infant reflex where a baby turns their head toward a touch on their cheek and opens their mouth.

Sucking reflex

An infant reflex involving the baby sucking on anything that touches the roof of their mouth.

Visual Cliff apparatus

A glass-covered platform with a checkered pattern used to test depth perception in infants.

Critical period

A specific time frame early in life when the visual system or other skills like language must receive certain experiences to develop properly.

Imprinting

A type of learning where a young animal fixates on the first moving object it encounters and follows it for safety and survival.

Puberty

A series of biological changes leading to reproductive maturity during adolescence.

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures directly involved in sexual reproduction.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that emerge during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Menarche

The onset of menstruation in females.

Spermarche

The beginning of sperm production in males.

Menopause

The end of menstrual cycles and reproductive capacity, typically starting in the late 40s to early 50s.

Gender

The roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that society considers appropriate for males and females.

Sex

The biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormones, and sex organs.

Gender schema

A cognitive framework that helps individuals organize and understand information related to gender.

Gender role stereotypes

Widely held beliefs about characteristics and behaviors considered appropriate for men and women.

Schemas

Mental structures or frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information; described by Piaget as mental blueprints.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage ($0$ to $2$ years) where infants learn through senses and actions.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen; a milestone of the sensorimotor stage.

Pre-operational stage

Piaget's second stage ($2$ to $7$ years) involving mental symbols and pretend play, though thinking is intuitive rather than logical.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

Reversibility

The ability to understand that objects can change and return to their original form.

Animism

The belief by children that inanimate objects have feelings.

Egocentrism

A child's inability to understand perspectives other than their own.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage ($7$ to $11$ years) where children begin to think more logically but struggle with abstract thinking.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's final stage starting in adolescence where individuals think abstractly and hypothetically.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Developed by Lev Vygotsky, the range of tasks an individual cannot do alone but can accomplish with help.

Scaffolding

The assistance provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a child accomplish complex tasks.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge and skills accumulated over a lifetime, such as vocabulary and facts, which tend to remain stable or increase with age.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to reason quickly and think abstractly to solve new problems; tend to decline as we age.

Dementia

A broad category of brain diseases causing long-term decreases in thinking and memory that interfere with daily functioning.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in any language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

The meaning derived from words and sentences.

Syntax

The specific rules for how words are arranged within a sentence.

Telegraphic speech stage

A stage of language development ($18$ to $24$ months) where toddlers combine words into basic phrases like 'want cookie'.

Overgeneralization

When children apply grammatical rules too broadly, such as saying 'foots' instead of 'feet'.

Microsystem

Part of Bronfenbrenner's theory; the immediate environment a person interacts with daily, like family, school, and friends.

Mesosystem

Connections between different parts of an individual's microsystem, such as communication between parents and teachers.

Exosystem

Broader social systems that influence an individual even if they don't interact with them daily, like a parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The broader cultural and societal context, including values, laws, and customs.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time in Bronfenbrenner's theory, including major life events and transitions.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style with high expectations and strict rules, expecting obedience without question.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style with high expectations balanced with warmth and support; parents set clear rules but listen to their children.

Permissive indulgent parenting

Highly responsive but not very demanding; these 'cool parents' rarely set rules.

Permissive indifferent parenting

Neither demanding nor responsive, providing minimal attention and support.

Secure attachment

An attachment style where children feel safe and confident that caregivers will meet their needs.

Avoidant attachment

An insecure attachment where children avoid close bonds and emotional connections.

Anxious attachment

An insecure attachment characterized by clinginess and distress when separated from caregivers.

Disorganized attachment

Complex attachment involving a mix of behaviors where children may act confused or apprehensive around caregivers.

Harry Harlow

Psychologist who conducted experiments with Rhesus monkeys, showing that infant monkeys preferred a soft cloth mother over a wire mother providing food.

Parallel play

A stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without interacting.

Imaginary audience

An adolescent's feeling that they are the center of everyone's attention and are being constantly scrutinized.

Personal fable

The belief among adolescents that their experiences are unique and that they are invincible.

Social clock

Cultural norms and expectations for the timing of major life events like marriage or starting a career.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage (first year) where infants develop trust if their basic needs are met.

Identity vs. Role confusion

Erikson's stage (ages $12$ to $18$) where teens work on forming personal identity and self-concept.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's stage (ages $40$ to $65$) where adults seek to contribute to society and nurture the next generation.

Aversive Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood, such as abuse or neglect, that can impact brain development and health.

Identity Achievement

A status in James Marcia's theory where an individual has explored options and made a firm commitment to goals and values.

Classical conditioning

A learning process where a natural stimulus (UCS) is paired with a neutral stimulus to eventually trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and instinctively triggers a response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with a UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Extinction

When a conditioned response decreases or disappears because a CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a break in time.

Taste aversion

A unique type of conditioning where an organism learns to avoid a food after just one exposure that led to sickness.

Operant conditioning

A learning theory explored by B.F. Skinner where rewards and punishments shape behavior based on the Law of Effect.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage or increase a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative punishment

Taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Shaping

An operant conditioning technique involving reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Instinctive drift

When an animal's innate behaviors interfere with a conditioned response.

Learned helplessness

When an individual learns to feel passive and powerless after repeated exposure to uncontrollable, unpleasant events.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcing a behavior after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

Providing reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; the most resistant to extinction.

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcing the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Variable interval schedule

Reinforcing the first response after varying, unpredictable time intervals.

Social cognitive theory

Albert Bandura's theory highlighting how individuals learn by observing and imitating others.

Mirror neurons

Brain cells that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else performing that same action.

Insight learning

A type of cognitive learning involving a sudden understanding or 'aha' moment to solve a problem; theorized by Wolfgang Kohler.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is demonstrated only when a reward is later introduced.