Final Exam Review- AI ( E/H)

Regular Exercise

Defined as moderate intensity exercise done 3 or more days per week, for at least 30 minutes per session, consistently for 3 or more months.

Hypertension

High blood pressure, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, not a disease itself.

High Blood Glucose

Elevated blood sugar levels, a risk factor for metabolic diseases, not a disease on its own.

Gradually Progress

Advancing slowly over a period of 2-3 months.

Cardiovascular Disease (CV)

Includes cardiac, peripheral vascular, or cerebrovascular diseases.

Metabolic Disease

Encompasses Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Signs and Symptoms

Indications of a condition, such as chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, etc.

Medical Clearance

Approval from a healthcare professional to engage in exercise.

ACSM Guidelines

Refers to the American College of Sports Medicine's recommendations for exercise testing and prescription.

CVD Risk Factors

Factors like aging, family history, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and more that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.

METs

Metabolic equivalents, a measure of the energy cost of physical activities.

BMI

Body Mass Index, a measure of body fat based on height and weight.

Moderate-intensity Exercise

Physical activity that raises heart rate to 64-76% of maximum heart rate.

Vigorous-intensity Exercise

Physical activity that raises heart rate to 77-95% of maximum heart rate.

Metabolic Syndrome

A cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

Treadmill Submax Test

A test where regression equations are used to correlate VO2max and time to completion, with separate equations for males and females.

VO2max

Maximum volume of oxygen that a person can use during intense exercise, measured in milliliters per kilogram of body weight per minute.

Correction Factors

Factors used to adjust VO2max values based on the age of the individual.

YMCA Cycle Ergometer test

A test involving heart rate, workload, and maximum oxygen uptake measurements on a cycle ergometer.

Motor Unit

Consists of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

Sarcomere Structure

The basic unit of muscle contraction, consisting of A-bands, I-bands, H-bands, M-lines, and Z-lines.

Neuromuscular Junction

The connection between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber, involving the axon terminal, motor end plate, and synaptic cleft.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction to stimulate muscle contraction.

Action Potential

Sudden change in the membrane potential that travels along the axon, leading to muscle fiber contraction.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft to terminate muscle stimulation.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

The process by which an action potential triggers a muscle contraction.

Sarcolemma

The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.

T tubule

Transverse tubule, a deep invagination of the sarcolemma in muscle cells.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

The specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells that stores calcium ions.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of the cell.

Calcium ion release

The release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to a muscle action potential.

Cross-bridge formation

The attachment of myosin heads to actin filaments during muscle contraction.

Troponin

A protein that binds to calcium ions and moves tropomyosin away from the active sites on actin.

Fast Glycolytic Fibers

Muscle fibers that contract quickly and rely on anaerobic glycolysis for energy.

Slow Oxidative Fibers

Muscle fibers that contract slowly and rely on aerobic metabolism for energy.

Phosphocreatine system

A system for rapidly generating ATP in muscle cells.

Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose to produce ATP.

Acetyl CoA

A molecule formed from pyruvate that enters the citric acid cycle.

TCA cycle

The citric acid cycle, a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy.

NADH and FADH2

Electron carriers that donate electrons to the electron transport chain to produce ATP.

ATP Yield

The total amount of ATP produced through different stages of cellular respiration.

Beta-oxidation

The breakdown of fatty acids to generate acetyl CoA.

Cross-over Effect

The shift in energy substrate utilization from carbohydrates to fats during exercise.

Sprint Running Phases

The different stages of a sprint race, including the start, acceleration, and high-velocity phases.

Sprint-RESISTED Training

Training that involves resistance to sprinting movements to improve speed and power.

Sprint-ASSISTED Training

Training that involves assistance to sprinting movements to improve speed and technique.

Metabolic Syndrome

A cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

Exercise Prescription

Specific recommendations on the type, amount, and intensity of physical activity for individuals based on their health status.

Heart Rate Reserve (HRR)

The difference between a person's maximum heart rate and resting heart rate, used to determine exercise intensity.

Resistance Training

Physical exercises that use resistance to induce muscular contraction, improving strength, endurance, and muscle mass.

Muscle Spindles

Sensory receptors within muscles that monitor changes in muscle length and trigger stretch reflexes.

Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs)

Receptors located at the junction of muscles and tendons that sense tension and prevent muscle damage.

Flexor Reflex

A protective response that pulls a body part away from a painful stimulus.

Crossed Extensor Reflex

A reflex that occurs on the opposite side of the body from the stimulus, maintaining balance and stability.

Stroke Exercise Prescription

Tailored exercise recommendations for stroke patients to improve function, prevent secondary strokes, and enhance fitness.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Exercise Prescription

Customized exercise plans for individuals with MS to manage symptoms and improve overall health.

Parkinson's Disease (PD) Exercise Prescription

Exercise guidelines designed to address specific health outcomes and improve mobility in individuals with PD.

Cardiac Output

The volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, determined by heart rate and stroke volume.

Preload

The degree of stretch on the heart muscle fibers before contraction, influencing stroke volume.

Contractility

The ability of the heart muscle to contract effectively, impacting stroke volume.

Afterload

The pressure the heart must overcome to eject blood, affecting stroke volume.

Venous Return

The flow of blood back to the heart, influencing stroke volume and cardiac output.

Respiratory Muscles

Muscles involved in the process of breathing, including those used during inhalation and exhalation.

Diaphragm

A major muscle used during inhalation that brings in 75% of air during normal breathing by increasing the depth of the thoracic cavity.

External Intercostals

Muscles that bring in 25% of air during inhalation by raising the ribs and increasing the width of the thoracic cavity.

Sternocleidomastoid & Scalene Muscles

Accessory muscles that can assist in raising the ribs during forced inhalation to increase the speed and amount of rib movement.

Internal Intercostals

Muscles used during exhalation to depress the ribs, reducing the width and depth of the thoracic cavity.

Abdominal Muscles

Muscles involved in exhalation by compressing the abdomen to force the diaphragm upwards.

Vital Capacity

The maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation.

Minute Ventilation (VE)

The volume of air moved into and out of the respiratory tract each minute.

Alveolar Ventilation (VA)

The volume of air reaching the alveoli each minute, which can change independently from minute ventilation.

Obstructive Disorders

Lung diseases where vital capacity is normal but FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in one second) is reduced, including COPD, asthma, and cystic fibrosis.

ADH

Hormone released in response to a rise in blood solute concentration, a fall in blood volume, or a fall in blood pressure. It acts on the kidneys to retain water, decrease urination, and can cause vasoconstriction in high concentrations. Alcohol inhibits its release.

Aldosterone

Hormone that stimulates the retention of Na+ and the elimination of K+. It is released due to a drop in Na+ in the blood, decrease in blood volume, decrease in blood pressure, or increase in blood K+. It is most sensitive to an increase in K+ concentration and leads to Na+ retention, which in turn leads to water retention.

Calcitonin

Hormone secreted by the thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium levels. It inhibits osteoclasts, decreases the rate of intestinal absorption of calcium, and promotes calcium excretion, thus decreasing blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands in response to low blood calcium levels. It stimulates osteoclasts to release stored calcium ions from bone, increases the rate of intestinal absorption of calcium, and decreases calcium loss in urine, leading to an increase in blood calcium levels.

Erythropoietin

Hormone released by the kidneys in response to decreased oxygen delivery to tissues. It stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow, increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.

Natriuretic Peptides

Hormones released by endocrine cells in the heart in response to increased blood volume. They lead to a decrease in blood volume and pressure by promoting Na+ and water loss by the kidneys, inhibiting renin release, suppressing ADH and aldosterone secretion, and preventing the elevation of blood pressure by angiotensin II and NE.

Thyroid Hormones

Hormones that enter cells and bind to cytoplasmic receptors, mitochondria, and DNA, leading to various effects such as increased ATP production, protein synthesis, and basal metabolic rate. T3 is the more active form, and training can increase circulating levels of both T3 and T4.

Insulin

Hormone that increases glucose uptake in target cells, leading to various metabolic effects such as glycogen synthesis, fatty acid synthesis, glycolysis, and protein synthesis. It decreases with exercise above a certain intensity and training can increase receptor sensitivity.

Glucagon

Hormone that activates adenylate cyclase via G-coupled protein, leading to cAMP production and activation of PKA. It increases glycogenolysis, lipolysis, gluconeogenesis, and is elevated with strenuous exercise.

Hemoglobin A1c

Test that measures the average blood glucose over 2-3 months by assessing the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated. Levels above a certain threshold indicate pre-diabetes or diabetes.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART)

Treatment for HIV that can increase lifespan but may be associated with side effects like dyslipidemia, central adiposity, and insulin resistance.

VO2R

Calculation used to determine the appropriate exercise intensity based on a patient's VO2max and resting VO2 levels.

METs

Metabolic equivalents used to measure the intensity of physical activities and can be calculated based on VO2R ranges.

Volume

The product of frequency, intensity (in METs), and time in minutes, used to quantify the total exercise workload.

Kcals burned

Calculation to determine the calories burned during physical activity based on METs, weight, and duration of exercise.

Motor Unit Recruitment

Process where more muscle fibers are stimulated to generate more tension during muscle contractions.

Static vs

Different types of muscle contractions - static (isometric) involves no visible movement, while dynamic (isotonic) involves visible movement.

Physiology of Strength Gains

Factors contributing to muscle strength gains including muscle hypertrophy, neural adaptations, and fiber type switching.

Flexibility Exercise Prescription

Guidelines for stretching exercises including frequency, intensity, time, type, volume, and pattern.

Neuromuscular Exercise

Exercises focusing on motor skills, balance, coordination, and proprioception to improve movement and reduce the risk of falls.

RER and RQ

Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) and respiratory quotient (RQ) used to measure the ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed during metabolism.

Mifflin St

Equation used to estimate resting metabolic rate (RMR) based on weight, height, age, and gender.

EE Equations

Equations to estimate energy expenditure (EE) during walking, running, and cycling based on speed, grade, and work rate.

Temperature Regulation

Mechanisms the body uses to maintain stable body temperature in hot and cold environments, controlled by the hypothalamus.

Exercising in Cold Environments

Summary of effects, risks, and precautions for exercising in cold conditions to prevent hypothermia, frostbite, and other cold-related injuries.

Acclimatization

The process by which the body adjusts to a new environment, such as hot temperatures, through physiological changes like improved sweating function and expanded plasma volume.

Dehydration

A condition where the body loses more fluids than it takes in, which can be a major risk in hot and dry environments.

Cardiac Drift

The phenomenon where slow-moving blood in or close to the skin helps transfer heat to evaporative surfaces, leading to a decrease in venous return, stroke volume, and an increase in heart rate to compensate during exercise in hot environments.