U.S. Government Foundations: Articles, Constitution, Supreme Court Cases & Key Amendments

Articles of Confederation

Established a 'firm league of friendship' among the states, creating a weak central government with limited powers.

Declaration of Independence

Argues that all men are created equal with unalienable rights, and that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.

Federalist No. 10

Argues that a large republic is better suited to control the effects of factions than a small democracy.

Brutus No. 1

Argues against the proposed Constitution, claiming it would lead to a consolidation of power in the national government at the expense of the states.

Federalist No. 51

Argues for the system of checks and balances and separation of powers to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful.

Federalist No. 70

Argues for a strong, unitary executive branch led by a single president rather than a plural executive.

Federalist No. 78

Argues for an independent judiciary with the power of judicial review.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

Argues for the moral necessity of direct action and civil disobedience in the face of unjust laws.

Article I

Establishes the legislative branch and its powers.

Article II

Establishes the executive branch and its powers.

Article III

Establishes the judicial branch and its powers.

Article IV

Addresses relations among the states and with the federal government.

Article V

Outlines the process for amending the Constitution.

Article VI

Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law of the land.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to make laws that are necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties as the supreme law of the land.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.

1st Amendment

Protects freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition.

Establishment Clause

Prohibits the government from establishing an official religion.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects citizens' right to practice their religion.

2nd Amendment

Protects the right to keep and bear arms.

4th Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.

5th Amendment

Provides for due process, protection against self-incrimination and double jeopardy from the federal government.

6th Amendment

Guarantees the rights of criminal defendants.

8th Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

9th Amendment

States that the enumeration of certain rights does not deny or disparage others retained by the people.

10th Amendment

Reserves powers not delegated to the U.S. to the states or to the people.

14th Amendment

Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people.

Due Process Clause of 14th Amendment

Requires the state government to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property.

Equal Protection Clause of 14th Amendment

Requires the government to treat all persons equally under the law.

15th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment

Provides for the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote.

19th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote on the basis of sex.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two terms in office.

24th Amendment

Prohibits the use of poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment

Sets the minimum voting age to 18.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

The Court upheld the power of Congress to create a bank and ruled that states cannot tax federal institutions, establishing federal supremacy.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

The Court struck down the Gun-Free School Zones Act, ruling that Congress had exceeded its constitutional authority under the Commerce Clause.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

The Court ruled that redistricting based on race must be held to strict scrutiny and could violate the Equal Protection Clause.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

The Court ruled that reapportionment issues are within the purview of the courts, establishing the principle of 'one person, one vote.'

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

The Court ruled that corporations and unions can spend unlimited amounts of money on elections, as political spending is a form of protected speech.