1st Half of Time Period 2

1450-1750

How did Land-Based empires expand their territory in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.

What issues and causes were at the root of conflict between Land-Based Empires circa 1450-1750?*

The primary issues at the root of conflicts between Land-Based Empires circa 1450-1750 were territorial expansion and control over lucrative trade routes. Additionally, religious differences and the desire for political dominance fueled hostilities among these empires. (e.g. Safavid [Shi'a]-Mughal [Sunni] conflict, Songhai Empire conflict with Morocco)

1453 CE (HUB Date)

Ottomans seized Constantinople.

~ Represents the beginning of the era of Land-Based empires using gunpowder and other methods to expand and maintain control of their empires. Here, the Muslim Ottoman, push into the Christian European continent demonstrating the supremacy of Muslim technology.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

Following the decline of the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire rose to power in the 14th century to fill the power void. They gradually expanded its control over Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and beyond through a combination of military conquest and strategic alliances. By the 16th century, the empire had expanded to territories across southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, becoming a dominant force in the region. The majority of the Ottoman empire was comprised of Sunni Muslims.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Mughal Empire.

The Mughal Empire rose to prominence in the 16th century under the leadership of Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, who established the empire in northern India. Over the next centuries, Mughal emperors expanded the empire across the Indian subcontinent through military conquest, diplomatic alliances, and administrative reforms, creating a flourishing cultural and economic center. This largely Sunni Muslim government employed religious tolerance in an attempt to rule the Hindu majority of the subcontinent without dissent

Describe the rise and expansion of the Russian Empire.

After breaking free of Mongol control in the late 1400s, Ivan the Terrible and later princes from Moscow began to take control of much of Russia, expanding their territory through a combination of military conquests and diplomatic alliance eliminating the authority of other local princes. Moscow centralized its authority, claiming divine right to rule, and named themselves czars, and established Moscow as the capital of the new Russian empire. By the 1600s, Russia began to colonize and expand eastward into the region of Siberia.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Safavid Empire.

Following a war against the Ottomans in the early 16h century, the Safavid family consolidated their control over Persia (modern-day Iran). They established the Shi'a sect of Islam as the official religion of the empire. Under the Shahs, the army was modernized and long-distance trade flourished. Like other absolute rulers, the shahs sought to strengthen their power and expand central authority at the expense of the nobility. Constant conflict with the Ottomans, coupled with the threat of an increasingly stronger Russian Empire to the north and the Mughal Empire to the south led to ongoing conflict.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Manchu Empire (Qing Dynasty).

The Manchu Empire, known as the Qing Dynasty, emerged in the 17th century when the Manchu tribes of northeastern China conquered the Ming Dynasty (who had replaced the Mongol Yuan Dynasty) and established their rule over China. The majority Chinese (Han) population saw the Manchu as a "foreign" dynasty. Through military conquests and alliances, the Qing expanded their empire to its greatest extent, incorporating Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan, creating one of the largest empires in history. This will be the last empire of China, collapsing before World War I.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based Empires use to administer (run) their government in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based Empires relied on centralized bureaucracies staffed by appointed officials as well as the development of military professionals to administer their governments efficiently. These officials were tasked with tasks such as tax collection, law enforcement, and infrastructure development, enabling rulers to maintain control over their vast territories and diverse populations. (e.g. Ottoman devshirme, Salaried Samurai)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to legitimize and justify their power in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based empires in the period circa 1450-1750 often used religious ideologies, such as divine right or the mandate of heaven, to justify their authority. Additionally, they used elaborate court rituals, patronage of the arts, and monumental architecture to visually demonstrate their legitimacy and power to their subjects and neighboring states. (e.g. Religious ideas: Mexica practice of human sacrifice, European notion of divine rights of monarch,) (e.g. Art & Monumental Architecture: Qing imperial portraits, Incan Sun Temple of Cuzco, Mughal Taj Mahal, European palaces, such as Versailles)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to raise money to pay for their expansion in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based empires in the period circa 1450-1750 used various methods to raise funds for their expansion, including taxation (tax farming), tribute from conquered territories, and state monopolies on key industries. They also often engaged in warfare and conquest to seize additional wealth and resources from neighboring regions, further financing their expansionist ambitions. (e.g. Tax-collection systems: Mughal zamindar tax collection, Ottoman tax farming, Mexica tribute lists, Ming practice of collecting taxes in hard currency)

Describe the Renaissance.

A "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture (arts and intellectual pursuits) in Europe that lasted from the 1300s through the 1500s. It reflected the spirit of individualism and encouraged a split from religious-based thinking and a focus on things of this world (secularism). This "rebirth" was largely possible due to the interconnectivity of the world created by the focus of Dar al-Islam on collecting and expanding upon the world's knowledge and the Pax Mongolica.

Describe the Protestant Reformation and its consequences.

The Protestant Reformation, sparked by Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church in the early 16th century, led to a division Christianity and the emergence of new religious sects (Protestantism). While the Catholic Church remained powerful, these new versions of Christianity challenged the church's power. Its consequences include religious wars, such as the Thirty Years' War, and long-term shifts in political and social structures, including the rise of nation-states and increased emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture. Often political leaders used this religious conflict to further and centralize their authority.

1618-1648 (HUB Date)

Thirty Years War - European War between Christianity & Ottoman Safavid War (1623-1639)

~ While this represents an ongoing wars of land-based empires, more importantly it represents conflict between schisms within Christianity and Islam. The Thirty Years War was a long lasting conflict between Catholics and Protestants while the Ottoman-Safavid War was a struggle between Sunni and Shi'a.

How did Sikhism develop in South Asia (modern-day India) in the time c. 1450-1750?

Sikhism developed in South Asia in a context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam.

What were the original sources of the innovations that made Europe's Age of Exploration possible?

Classical(Greco Roman), Islamic, and Asian worlds spread their knowledge, scientific learning, and technology facilitating European technological developments and innovation.

What were some of the maritime technologies that helped usher in Europe's Age of Exploration?*

The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and current patterns--all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible. (e.g. Innovations in ship design: Caravel, Currack, Fluyt, Dhows; e.g. Navigational technologies: Lateen Sail, Magnetic Compass, Astronomical charts, Sternpost Rudder)

Describe Portugal's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Portugal's government funded a development of navigational technology in order to establish a trading-post empire. Portugal established trade-posts (small port cities on the coast... not colonization) along both the western and eastern shore of Africa and India in order to access the trade goods of the Indian Ocean Trade Network. This was a reaction to the denial of access by the Ottoman Empire to trade goods imported via land routes.

Describe Spain's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Following the reconquista (retaking of Islamic Spain by Christian monarchs) the Spanish government sponsored the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific, eventually establishing colonies in the Americas. These state sponsored voyages dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

Describe the English and French role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken under English and French government sponsorship, often with the goal of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia. The English and French eventually established colonies in North America and the Caribbean islands. The French largely focused their activities on the fur trade in what would become Canada while the English established settlement colonies along the east coast of what would later become the United States.

Describe the Dutch role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750 c. 1450-1750.

During the period circa 1450-1750, the Dutch played a significant role in maritime exploration, establishing trading posts and colonies across Asia and Africa. Utilizing their advanced naval technology and economic ingenuity, the Dutch East India Company became a dominant force in the spice trade.

1492 CE (HUB Date)

Columbus sailed the "Ocean Blue".

~ Represents the beginning of the era of Maritime empires (think European states) looking to the ocean to establish new trade routes to access the traditional long-distance trade routes. This begins the slow rise of European political, economic and military power across the globe.

Describe the Columbian Exchange.

The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres resulted in the exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases, known as the Columbian Exchange. This is not an economic trade route, it is an environmental exchange.

Describe the role that disease played within the Columbian Exchange.

European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease carriers, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were normal in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas.

Describe the role of crops & animals of the Americas played within the Columbian Exchange.*

American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Diets, life expectancy and standard of living improved in various parts of Afro-Eurasia. (e.g. Corn, Potatoes, Tomatoes, Rubber Tree, Yams)

Describe the role that crops & animals of Afro-Eurasia played within the Columbian Exchange.*

Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by African slaves. (e.g. - Domesticated Animals: Horses, Pigs, Cattle) (e.g. - Foods brought by African slaves: Okra, Rice)

Describe the migration of humans as part of the Columbian Exchange.

In the early stages of the Columbian exchange, migration occurred on two fronts. Europeans migrated to the Americas in search of new opportunities. Cash crops, like sugar, were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor in the form of African slaves. Very few people migrated from the Americas to Afro-Eurasia.